广告调查（第二版）英文 指导手册 Davis-Instructors-Manual-ch08 Observation Research Human and Automated

AdvertisingResearch:Instructor’sManual

Copyright©2012PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasPrenticeHall

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AdvertisingResearch:Instructor’sManual

Copyright©2012PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasPrenticeHall

8. ObservationResearch:HumanandAutomated

ChapterGoals

Thechapterwillhelpstudentsincreasetheirunderstandingof:

• howhumanandautomatedobservationisused.

• thestrengths,weaknesses,andlimitationsofeachformofobservation.

• therangeofinsightsprovidedbyeachformofobservationandhowtheseinsightscontributetoadvertisingdecision-making.

NotestotheInstructor

TheChapterLectureprovidesaguidetokeytopicsandcontent.ThePowerPointslidesarenamed:davis_adresearch_ch8.ppt.

Twoonlinesupplementalreadingsillustratetheuseandpowerofobservationresearch.

The“VideoConsumerMappingStudy”isthelargestobservationalstudyofmediauseandconsumptioneverconducted.Theresearch,conductedonbehalfoftheNielsen-fundedCouncilforResearchExcellencebyBallStateUniversity’sCenterforMediaDesignandSequentPartners,observedandrecordedthemediausageof476adultsinsixgeographicallydispersedDesignatedMarketAreas(DMAs).Mediausagewasrecordedbyextensivelytrainedobserversevery10secondsforanindividual’sfullwakingdayperiod.Observationratherthansurveyswereusedtocollectthedatabecausepriorresearchhaddemonstratedthatmediausageiscomplex,multifacetedandnotaccuratelyreportedinsurveysorotherself-reportingapproaches.

Thesecondreportisnotaresearchstudyperse,butitdoesuseobservationtoevaluatethesuccessofasocialmediacampaign.Thecampaign,designedbyAmnestyUK,wasdesignedtoraiseawarenessofissuesrelatedtoviolenceagainstwomen.Thesuccessofthecampaignwasexclusivelymeasuredthroughthecollectionofobservationaldatathatreportedthenumberofpeoplewho:

• sentsupportingemails,

• changedtheirFacebookorTwitteravatars,

• Tweetedthetargetmessageand/orbecameaTwitterfollower,

• tookapledge,

• visitedatargetwebsite.

Theextenttowhichthecampaignaccomplisheditsgoals,asreflectedinthepriorobservationaldata,isprovidedinthereport.Asyoudiscussthecampaignanditsresults,besuretonoticehowtheobservationalmeasuresusedtoevaluatethecampaignaredirectlyrelatedtothecampaign’sapproachandgoals.

ChapterLecture

Lecturediscussestwotypesofobservationresearchcommonlyusedtoinformadvertisingdecision-making:

• Humanobservation,whichusesaresearchertoobserveotherpeople’sbehaviors.

• Automatedobservation,whichusescomputersormechanicaltrackingdevicestoobservebehaviors,forexample,websurfingcookies.

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I.HumanObservation

Humanobservationresearchismostappropriateinfourtypesofsituations:

• Whereobservationsofbehavioraremoreinsightfulthandescriptionsofbehavior

• Whererespondentsmaybeunabletoverbalizetheirattitudes

• Whensurveymeasuresofattitudesmaynotaccuratelypredictactualbehaviors

• Whenbehaviorsthemselvesarethebestsourceofinsight

A.QualitativeorQuantitative?

Observationresearchcanbeeitherquantitativeorqualitativedependinguponsamplesize,howsamplewasselectedandthetypeofdatacollected.

Considerasituationwhereyouwanttoknowifshowingyoungchildrenadvertisingencouragingphysicalactivityactuallymotivatesthemtobemoreactive.Youselectagroupofchildrenandthenrandomlyassignthemtooneoftwoconditions:

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ChildreninthetreatmentgroupwatchanepisodeofTheSimpsonsrecordedfromatelevisionbroadcastembeddedwiththree:30advertisementspromotingphysicalactivity.Childreninthecontrolgroupwatchthesameepisodeembeddedwithchild-appropriateadvertisements,butwithoutphysicalactivityadvertisements.

Afterviewing,childrenaregiventimetoplayoutdoors.Observerswatchthechildren.Datacouldeitherbequalitativeorquantitative.

• Qualitativewouldconsistofresearchertakingnotesaboutchildren’splayaswellasrecordingthoughtsaboutwhetherornotanyspecificinstanceofplaycouldbeconsidered“physicalactivity.”

• Quantitativewouldconsistofresearcherpreparing(inadvance)alistofactivitiesconsidered“physicalactivity”and,whenalistedactivityoccurs,recordtheamountoftimespentonthatactivity.

B.AspectsofHumanObservationResearch

Humanobservationresearchischaracterizedintermsoffourdimensions:(1)typeofsituationinwhichobservationtakesplace(naturalorartificial),(2)observerpresence(openversusdisguised),(3)levelofobserverparticipation(activeorpassive)and(4)formofdatarecording(unstructuredversusstructured).

1.Situation:NaturalVersusArtificial

Naturalobservationofindividuals,situations,objects,oreventstakesplacenaturallyasbehaviorsunfoldattheirownpaceintheirownenvironment.Examplesinclude:

• countingthenumberandgenderofindividualswhovisitafastfoodrestaurant

• observingsalesclerksastheyservetheircustomers

• observingthelabel-readingbehaviors

• recordingthetimeshoppersspendreadingvariouspoint-of-purchasedisplays

Naturalobservationisappropriatewhenthetargetbehaviorsarerepetitive,

frequent,and/oroccurwithinareasonablyshorttimeframe.

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Artificialobservationrecordstargetbehaviorsoreventsincontextofafabricatedsituation.Theresearchertakesanactiveroleinpromptingthetargetbehavior,forexample:

• Mysteryshopperresearch

• Commercialtestfacilities

Advantages:(1)permitsresearchertospeedupthedatagatheringprocessbyinitiatingdesiredsituationratherthanwaitingforittooccurnaturallyand(2)permitsresearchertocontrolextraneousvariablesthatmightimpactwhatisbeingobserved.

2.ObserverObtrusiveness:OpenVersusDisguised

Thisreferstotheextenttowhichthepresenceofanobserverisknownbyindividualsunderobservation.

Openobservationoccurswhenthepresenceoftheobserverisexplicitlyknown.Disguisedobservationhidespresenceoftheobserver.

Researchhasdemonstratedthattheknownpresenceofanobserverhasgreatpotentialforalteringthebehaviorsofthepersonbeingobserved.Asaresult,disguisedobservationtypicallyprovidesbetter,morerealisticdata.

3.ObserverParticipation:ActiveVersusPassive

Activeobservertypicallytakespartintheactivitiesbeingobserved.A“mysteryshopper”thatinitiatesconversationswithsalespersonnelisanactive

participantintheresearchprocess.

Passiveobservertypicallywatcheswithoutinterferingorinteractingwiththepeopleorobjectsbeingobserved.A“mysteryshopper”whowatcheshowsalespersonnelinteractwithrealshoppersisapassiveobserver.

Approacheshavecomplimentarystrengthsandweaknesses.

• Anactiveobserverisclosertothesourceofthedataandhasopportunitytodirectlyinteractwiththosebeingobserved.Activeobserversalsoallowtheobservertodirectactivitiestofocusonkeyissues.Mustbecarefulnottointroducebias.

• Passiveobservationrequirestheresearchertotakeeventsastheycome.

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Itcanbetime-consuming,butprovidesthecleanestdatabecauseeventsandbehaviorsunfoldwithoutanyartificialinfluence.

4.DataRecording:StructuredVersusUnstructured

Structureddatarecordingknowsdesiredtypesofinformationandbehaviorsinadvance.Desireddataisrecordedonachecklistorobservationformwhileallotherinformationandbehaviorsareignored.

Unstructureddatarecordingrecordsobservedbehaviorsinverbalform,typicallyasanarrativeorfieldnotes.Therearenorestrictionsonthetypesofbehaviorsobserved,althoughitisexpectedthatpre-identifiedtargetbehaviorswillbespecificallynoted.

Approacheshavecomplementarystrengthsandweaknesses.

• Structuredobservationsrequiremoretimeinvestmentbefore

observation(inordertocreatetheobservationform),butdatacollection

andanalysisaremuchmoreefficient.

• Unstructuredobservationsprovidegreateropportunityfordiscoveriesinthefieldbutcanbetimeconsumingasdatamustbecodedpriortoanalysis.

C.ExamplesofObservationResearch

1.DisconnectBetweenAttitudesandBehaviors

Thisobservationisanaturalsituationincludingdisguisedobserver,passiveobserver,andstructureddatacollection.

Background:GreenGlobe21isaninternationalcertificationprogramdesignedtopromotesustainabletravelandtourism.TheGreenGlobe21(GG21)ecolabelcanbeplacedonproducts,places,ormaterials.Surveyresearchfoundtourists’attitudestowardstheGG21ecolabelwereverypositiveandthattheyappearedtohaveahighawarenessofsustainabilityissues.

ResearchQuestion:Dothesesupportiveattitudestranslateintoactualbehaviors?

Methodology:Atouristcenterwasselectedastheplaceofobservation.Theobservationportionofthestudywascarriedoutintwophases.(1)Baselinedatawascollected.Here,visitorwalkingpatternsaroundthecenterwereobservedandcoded.Thenumberandtimespentlookingatmaterials(bothGG21labeledandnonlabeled)wasobservedandrecorded.(2)Alarge,

attention-gettingdisplayandslideshowexplainingGreenGlobe21wasplacedinthefrontofthecenter.ThegoalofthedisplaywastopassivelypromptvisitorstorecalltheirexpressedpositiveattitudestowardecolabelingandpayattentiontoGG21labeledmaterials.Identicaltothebaselinephase,walkingpatternsandmaterialinteractionswereobservedandrecorded.

Results:Therewasasignificantdisconnectbetweenattitudesandbehavior.Eventhoughvisitors’walkingpatternsshowedthatGG21labeledmaterialshadtheopportunitytobeviewed,barelyanyvisitorstookthetimetostopandexaminethesematerials.Thiswastrueofallvisitors,butespeciallythosewhoshowedhighlevelsofenvironmentalconcernandawarenessofGG21inpost-visitinterviews.

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Case2:Self-ReportedDataRegardingAttitudesandBehaviorsMayNotbe

Accurate

Thisexampleusesobservationthatisnatural,disguised,passive,andstructured.

ResearchQuestion:Doindividuals’self-reportedbehaviorsaccuratelyrepresenttheiractualbehaviorswithregardtoalcoholpurchase?

Methodology:Conductfocusgroupinterviewstouncoverattitudesand

reportedbehaviorsregardingalcoholpurchase.Conductobservationsofalcohol

purchasebehaviors.

Results:Verbalreportssignificantlyoverstatedbrandimportanceandinvolvementinpurchasedecision,specifically:

• Consumersclaimedtheyregularlyreadproductlabelingandtookovertenminutesin-storeforaroutineshop…this

contrastedwiththeobservationalfindingsthatshowedthatfewer

than10%ofconsumersreadlabelsand,onaverage,shopperstooklessthanthreeminutestoenter,makeadecision,payandleave.

• Ininterviewsandfocusgroups,consumersconsistentlymisrepresentedbrandloyalty.Recalledbehaviorgaveanaverageusageoffourbrandswhileobservationalresearchfindingsshowedthenumbertobesomewhereclosertosixbrands.

• Fewrespondentswereobservedtonoticeposters,giftswithpurchaseorbonusstockoffers.Intheinterviewsrespondentsclaimedtheseofferswerenoticedandimpactedonmanypurchasedecisions.

• Abouthalftherespondentsthoughttheyhadboughtaproductonspecial.Thefigureobtainedthroughobservation,wasclosertotenpercent.

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Case3:BehavioralRatherthanAttitudinalChangeistheFocus

Thisexampleusesobservationthatisartificial,open,passive,andstructured.

ResearchQuestion:Haveactualbehaviors,ratherthanjustattitudes,changedinresponsetomessageexposure?Specifically,researcherswantedtoknowiftheycouldpromotehealthychickenhandlingbehaviorsthroughacommunicationprogram.

Methodology:Pre-postexperimentaldesignwherethebehaviorsofthoseexposedtothecommunicationprogramwerecomparedtoindividualsinacontrol(unexposed)group.Targetedbehaviorsweretheuseofseparateoradequatelywashedanddriedchoppingboardsandknivesbetweenthepreparationofrawchickenandotherfoods,orthepreparationofallotherfoodspriortopreparingchicken.

Results:Short-termfoodhandlingbehaviorsimprovedintheexposedversusnon-exposedgroup.

II.AutomatedObservation

Humanbehaviorsareobserved,butobservationaldataiscollectedbymachineratherthanpeople.Machinesmonitorandtrackconsumers’behaviors,typicallycollectingquantitativedatainastructured,disguisedmanner.

Therearetwomainformsofautomatedobservation(1)directmonitoringofconsumerbehaviors.Occurswhencookiesareusedtotrackanindividual’sonlinebehaviorsorwhenloyaltycardsareusedatthesupermarket(2)monitoringtheproductsofconsumerbehaviors.Occurswhencomputersareusedtomeasureonline“buzz”ortomonitorchangesinbrandperceptionsinblogsorotherformsofconsumergeneratedmedia.

A.ObservingOnlineBehaviors

Websitesdonottypicallydeliveradvertisingfromtheirownserversbutareinsteadfedadvertisementsfromanadvertisingnetwork’sserver.Itisthenetwork’sserverthatdecideswhichadwillbeseenineachindividualviewingsituation.Cookieshelptheadvertisingnetworkdeterminewhichadsshouldbeservedtoeachindividual.

DoubleClick’sDARTisoneofthelargestadservingnetworks.DART’sgoalistouseobservationorpastbehaviorstoincreaseadvertisingrelevanceand,byimplication,increaseadvertisingresponse.

“OurclientsstoretheiradsonDoubleClick’sadservers.WhenyouvisitaWebpageonwhichaclientisusingDoubleClicktechnologytodeliverads,codingthatthewebsitepublisherplacedintheWebpagetellsyourcomputer’sbrowsertosendarequestforanadtotheDoubleClickadserver.WhentheDoubleClickadserverreceivesarequest,itwillselectanadbasedonthecriteriathattheclienthaschosentogetherwithanyinformationloggedagainsttheuniquecookieid.”

FetchBackusesadifferentapproach.Itusesobservationtomatchadvertisingexposuretopriorwebsitevisits,displaysadvertisingforawebsitetopastvisitorstothatsite.

CoremetricsLIVEProfiletrackscustomersandprospectsastheyinteractwithbusinessesonline,acrossmultipleadnetworks,orviaemail,video,affiliatesitesandsocialmedia.Itthenintegratesthisdataandofflineinformation,

providingasinglecomprehensiveviewofeachvisitor’sbehaviorovertimeand

acrosschannels.

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GhosteryisaFirefoxadd-onthatmakeswebobservationexplicitandtransparent.

B.ObservingOfflineBehaviors

Storeloyaltycardsareonewaythatobservationtakesplaceoffline.Loyaltycardsarethecreditcardorkeychain-sizedcardswithabarcodeormagneticstripeofferedbymostlargeretailchains,particularlysupermarkets,pharmacies,andclothingstores.

Grocerystoreloyaltycardsworkasfollows:

• Whenscannedatcashregister,thecardunlocksspecialdiscountsofferedto"loyal"members.

• Inreturnforsavings,cardholdersagreetoallowthegrocerystoretotracktheirpurchaseseachtimetheyshop.

• Grocerystoresusethisinformationtodecidewhichproductstocarry,whatpricestocharge,andinsomecases,totargetconsumerswithspecificcouponsandpromotionsonbehalfof

grocerymanufacturers.

Storeusesaggregatedatainternally(andsometimesexternally)aspartofitsmarketingresearch.Onanindividuallevel,theobservationaldataprovidedbythesecardsallowsmarketerstodeterminesuccessofpromotionaleffortsortocustomizeofferstospecifictypesofbehaviorsorpurchasepatterns.

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C.ObservingConsumerGeneratedMedia

Consumergeneratedmedia(CGM)“describestheevolvingconsumer-createdspaceontheInternet.CGMreferstoabroadrangeofonlineword-of-mouthvehiclesincluding,butnotlimitedto,consumer-to-consumeremail,postingsonpublicInternetdiscussionboards/forums,Usenetgroupsandlistservs,

consumerratingsWebsitesorfourms,blogs,moblogs(siteswhereuserspost

digitalimages/photos/movies)vlogs(videoblogs),socialnetworkingwebsites,andindividualwebsites.”

Thevastnumberofsourcestobemonitored(nowestimatedtoexceed100million)necessitatesautomatedobservation.AllinvolvedcompaniesprovideacoresetofinformationbasedontheircontinuousobservationoftensorevenhundredsofmillionsofCGMsources.InformationtypicallyprovidedbyCGMobservationincludes:

• Coverage:Numberoftimesabrandorissueismentioned.

• Depth:Howdeeplydoesthepostingdiscussabrand?IsitjustapassingmentionordoestheCGMgointothesubjectin-depthwithnumerouscommentsandlinks?

• Content:Wasthepostingdesignedtosolveaproblem,comparedifferentbrands,passalonginformation,advocateforacause,criticizetheorganizationorsimplyallowtheauthortorant?

• Sentiment:WhatwasthetoneandaffectoftheCGM.Wasitgenerallypositive,negativeorneutral?(Slide8-27providesanexampleofsentimentmonitoring.)

Thepriorlistdescribestwotypesofobservations:purelydescriptive(content,depth)andanalytical(contentandsentiment).

AdvertisersuseobservationsofCGMtoinformplanninganddecision-makinginfourprimaryways.

1.CampaignMonitoring

AdvertiserscanrelatetrendsandshiftsinCGMtotheircommunicationprogram,identifyingaspectsofaprogramthatseemtobeworkingwellandthosethatareproblematicandneedadditionalattention.

Slide8-27showsthekeyeventsforthefirsttenmonthsofanewsoftdrink’scommunicationcampaignchartedagainsttheamountanddirectionofconsumerbuzz.Trendsindicatethefollowingwithregardtoimpactofthecommunicationprogram:

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• SincethiswasanewsoftdrinktherewaslittleCGMpriortotheproductintroductionandthestartoftheadvertisingcampaign.AlloftheCGMmonitoredduringthisperiodwaspre-announcementspeculation.

• ThetelevisioncampaignlaunchedattheendofMarch.ThecampaignwasextremelywellreceivedandgeneratedincreasingamountsofCGM.AnexaminationofsentimentindicatedthattheadditionalCGMsentimentwasoverwhelminglypositive.Asthecampaigncontinuedtorun,somesignsof“wear-out”occurredastheamountofpositivesentiment(whilestillhigh)begantoslowlydecline.

• AviralvideocampaignwaslaunchedinJulytoannounceasummerpromotion.Itappearsthatthiscampaignwasadisaster.NegativeCGMmentionsbegintospikeveryshortlyafterthelaunchoftheviralcampaignwhilepositiveCGMdropsdramatically.

• Theinitialviralcampaignisreplacedbyasecondcampaignseveralweekslater.Thissecondviralcampaignworkswelltoreversethepriortrend,generatinghighlevelsofpositivesentimentwhilesignificantlyreducingtheamountofnegativesenti