外国翻译理论纪要从古罗马到现代

中外翻译理论Trulymajorperiodsinthehistoryoftranslationtendtocoincidewitheraswhenamajordifferentialorinequalityexists—orisperceivedtoexist—betweentwoculturesortwopeoplesemployingdifferentlanguages.Oneofthesepeoplesperceivestheneedtoabsorbgreaterorhigherormoredetailedknowledgefromanother,whetherthisknowledgeisconceivedinpolitical,religious,orscientificterms.1.Prehistory:predominanceofinterpretingand"mediating"(by"marriage-brokers","go-betweens","deal-makers","peace-seekers",allofthesesubsidiarymeaningsoftheearliestwordsfor"interpreters").2.Egyptians:theneedtocommunicatewithpeoplesinSouthernEgypt.(TheRosettastoneisevidenceofEgypt'sassiduous(勤勉的)concernwithtranslationthroughtheages.Inscriptionsfrom197BC,foundnearthetownofRosetta,Egypt,1799.Givingthesametextinthreeversions–-Greek,Hieroglyphic(象形文字),andDemoticScript(俗体文)–itbecamethekeytodeciphering(译解)otherEgyptianinscriptions).RosettaStone1799年，法军在尼罗河西支流罗塞达（Rosetta）入海口附近偶然挖掘出一块布满稀奇古怪文字”的黑色石碑。该石碑就以它的发现地命名为“罗塞达石碑”。石碑上共有三段文字，前两段为古埃及文字（分别为象形文和俗体文），第三段为古希腊文。由于古希腊文字在当时是看得懂的，学者们便很快了解到该石碑的内容。象形文在当时是用于书写重要的文件或宗教使用的语言，俗体文是一般人通用的文字，用于记录日常生活。希腊文是当时埃及统治者使用的语言。用三种语言刻写后，祭司、政府官员、老百姓都能看懂。3.Greeks:theneedtounderstandEgyptiancivilization.4.Romans:theneedtounderstandGreekcivilization.5.Chinese(7thCenturyA.D.):theneedtounderstandIndiancivilization,especiallySanskritscriptures.6.ArabandPersianWorld(Baghdad,8th--10thCenturies):theneedtoabsorbandintegrateSanskrit,Hebrew,Syriac(古代叙利亚语),andGreekknowledgeintoPersianandArabiccultures.7.Japanese(HeianPeriod(平安时代),9th—10thCenturies):theneedtounderstandandabsorbChineseculture,withKoreaasanimportantintermediary.8.WesternMiddleAges:theneedtoreabsorbandintegrateArabic,Hebrew,andGreekknowledgeinmedievalEurope.9.Renaissance:reintegrationofAncientGreekcultureintheWest.10.Enlightenmentand19thCenturies:declineofLatin,emergenceofmodernnationallanguagesasthemeasureofhumanknowledge.11.ModernTimes:manycompetingmajorandminornationallanguages.MarcusTulliusCicero古罗马翻译研究的历史悠久，西方的译论可以追溯到古罗马的西塞罗（Cicero）的一篇题为“论最优秀的演说家”（46AD）的文章。西塞罗（MarcusTulliusCicero）105AD-46AD古罗马政治家、雄辩家、哲学家，生于骑士家庭，63AD任执政官。他的主要贡献在于将希腊哲学思想通俗化，使人容易接受。他著述广博今存其论文多篇，其文体流畅被誉为拉丁文的典范。另外他还翻译过荷马的《奥德赛》以及柏拉图（Plato）、色诺芬（Xenophon）、阿拉图斯（Aratus）等古希腊先哲的著作。同时他又是西方翻译史上最早的翻译理论家之一，对翻译有精辟的见解。但是，他有关翻译的论述主要见于《论最优秀的演说家》（Deoptimogenereoratorum）和《论善与恶之定义》（Definibusbonorumetmalorum）这两部并非翻译理论专著的书中。Deoptimogenereoratorum(excerpt)Butsincetherewasacompletemisapprehensionastothenatureoftheirstyleoforatory,Ithoughtitmydutytoundertakeataskwhichwillbeusefultostudents,thoughnotnecessaryformyself.ThatistosayItranslatedthemostfamousorationsofthetwomosteloquentAtticorators,AeschinesandDemosthenes,orationswhichtheydeliveredagainsteachother.AndIdidnottranslatethemasaninterpreter,butasanorator,keepingthesameideasandforms,orasonemightsay,the”figures”ofthought,butinlanguagewhichconformstoourusage.AndinsodoingIdidnotholditnecessarytorenderwordforword.ButIpresevedthegeneralstyleandforceofthelanguage.ForIdidnotthinkIoughttocountthemouttothereaderlikecoins,buttopayforthembyweight,asitwere.TheresultofmylaborwillbethatourRomanswillknowwhattodemandfromthosewhoclaimtobeAtticistsandtowhatruleofspeech,asitwere.Theyaretobeheld.Theinterpreterofthefirstlineistheliteral(word-for-word)tanslator,whiletheoratortriedtoproduceaspeechthatmovedthelisteners.InRomantimes,“word-for-word”tanslationisexactlywhatissaid:thereplacementofeachindividualwordoftheST(invariableGreek)withitsclosestgramaticaleqiuvalentinLatin.ThiswasbecausetheRomanswouldreadtheTTssidebysidewiththeGreekSTs.IfIrenderwordforword,theresultwillsounduncouth(awkward),andifcompelledbynecessityIalteranythingintheorderorwording,Ishallseemtohavedepartedfromthefunctionoftheatranslator.IdecidedtotakespeecheswritteninGreekbygreatoratorsandtotranslatethemfreely,andIobtainedthefollowingresults:bygivingaLatinformtothetextIhadread,Icouldnotonlymakeuseofthebestexpressionsincommonusagewithus,butIcouldalsocoinnewexpressions,analogoustothoseusedinGreek,andtheywerenolesswellreceivedbyourpeopleaslongastheyseemedappropriate.Ciceropointsoutthatminddominatesthebodyasakingrulesoverhissubjectsorafathercontrollshischildren,butwarnsthatwhereReasondominatesasamasterrulinghisslaves,“itkeepsthemdownandcrushesthem”.Withtranslation,theidealSListheretobeimitatedandnottobecrushedbythetoorigidapplicationoftheReason.Ciceronicelyexpressesthisdistinction:”IfIrenderwordforword,theresultwillsounduncouth,andifcompelledbynecessityIalteranythingintheorderorwording,Ishallseemtohavedepartedfromthefunctionofatranslator.”BothHoraceandCicero,intheirremarksonthanslation,makeanimpotantdistinctionbetweenword-for-wordtranslationandsense-for-sense(figure-for-figure)tanslation.TheunderlyingprincipleofenrichingtheirnativelanguageandliteraturethroughtranslationleadstoastressontheaestheticciteriaoftheTLproduct,ratherthanonmorerigidnotionsof“fidelity(保真度)”.QuintusHoratiusFlaccus古罗马QuintusHoratiusFlaccus(Dec.65BC–-Nov.8BC),knownintheEnglish-speakingworldasHorace,wastheleadingRomanlyricpoetduringthetimeofAugustus(奥古斯都罗马帝国第一任皇帝（公元前27年─公元14年）).贺拉斯，古罗马时期著名抒情诗人、政治家。主要作品有《颂诗》、《讽刺诗》、《书简》等，代表作为《诗艺》（ArsPotica）。书中主张写诗须以希腊诗歌为典范，讲求格律，尤其要“寓教于乐”。他对欧洲古典主义文学理论影响很大。《诗艺》还用了一些篇幅来论述翻译问题。贺拉斯主张用灵活地方法进行翻译，不要跟在原文的后面亦步亦趋地模仿原文的语言，那样只会作茧自缚，读者也很难有收益。SincetheprocessoftheenrichmentoftheliteratrysystemisanintegralpartoftheRomanconceptoftranslation,itisnotsurprisingtofindaconcernwiththequestionoflanguageenrichmentalso.Soprevalentwasthehabitofborrowingorcoiningwords,thatHorace,whilst(=while)advisingthewould-bewritertoavoidthepitfalls(陷阱)thatbeset(围攻)“theslavish(奴隶的)translator”,alsoadvisedthesparinguseofnewwords.Hecomparedtheprocessoftheadditionofnewwordsandthedeclineofotherwordstothechangingoftheleavesinspringandautumn,seeingthisprocessofenrichmentthroughtranslationasbothnaturalanddesirable,providedthewriterexercisemoderation.Theartofthetranslator,forHoraceandCicero,then,consistedinjudicious(慎重的)interpretationoftheSLtextsoastoproduceaTLversionbasedontheprinciplenonverbumdeverbo,sedsensumexprimeredesensu(ofexpressingnotwordforword,butsenseforsense),andhisresponsibilitywastotheTLreaders.EarlyBIBLEtranslationTheBibleisthecentralreligioustextofJudaism(犹太教)andChristianity.TheChristianBibleincludesthesamebooksastheTanakh(referredtointhiscontextastheOldTestament),butusuallyinadifferentorder,togetherwithtwenty-sevenspecificallyChristianbookscollectivelyknownastheNewTestament.ThosewereoriginallywritteninGreek.犹太教的宗教经典是指《塔纳赫》（或称《希伯来圣经》），而基督教的则指《旧约圣经》和《新约圣经》两部分。其中，《塔纳赫》是犹太教的经典，记载关于上帝和古时犹太人的历史及传说。《塔纳赫》亦同时是基督教圣经的《旧约》部分。TheBiblehasbeentranslatedintomanylanguagesfromthebiblicallanguagesofHebrewandGreek.TheveryfirsttranslationoftheHebrewBibleintoGreekwastheSeptuagint(LXX),whichlaterbecametheacceptedtextoftheOldTestamentinthechurchandthebasisofitscanon(基督教的正典圣经(简称正经)).TheSeptuagint(IPA:/ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt/),orsimply"LXX",istheKoineGreek(希腊罗马时代东地中海等希腊语国家的共同语)versionoftheHebrewBible,translatedinstagesbetweenthe3rdand1stcenturiesBC.ItistheoldestofseveralancienttranslationsoftheHebrewBibleintotheGreeklanguage,thelinguafrancaoftheeasternMediterraneanBasinfromthetimeofAlexandertheGreat(356-323BC).Thewordseptuagintameans"seventy"inLatinandderivesfromatraditionthatseventy(orseventy-two)JewishscholarstranslatedthePentateuch(《旧约》的前五卷)fromHebrewintoGreek.七十士译本（Septuagint）：七十士译本是旧约圣经的希腊文译本。这译本是给那些分散在各地，不懂得希伯来文的犹太人使用的。传统说，曾有约七十位希伯来学者参加，将希伯来文圣经译成希腊文（Septuagint的意思是「七十」，这译本也简称为LXX）。翻译的工作是在埃及的亚历山大城分期进行的。这个译本本身并不一致，但因为它所依据的是比现存希伯来抄本早一千年前的版本，所以七十士译本是相当重要的。此外，新约作者也经常引用七十士译本，这译本能帮助我们明白旧约圣经。SaintJerome南斯拉夫Jerome(EusebiusHieronymus),347-420,wasaFatheroftheChurchandDoctoroftheChurch,whosegreatworkwasthetranslationoftheBibleintoLatin,theeditionknownastheVulgate(武加大译本《通俗拉丁文译本》).HewasbornatStridononthebordersofDalmatiaandPannoniaofawell-to-doChristianfamily.HisparentssenthimtoRometofurtherhisintellectualinterests,andthereheacquiredaknowledgeofclassicalliteratureandwasbaptizedattheageof19.ShortlythereafterhejourneyedtoTrierinGaulandtoAquileiainItaly,wherehebegantocultivatehistheologicalinterests.Between390and405,St.JeromegaveallhisattentiontothetranslationoftheOldTestamentaccordingtotheHebrew.圣哲罗姆（SaintJerome,347-419）生于南斯拉夫卢布尔雅那附近，父母富有，均为基督教徒。12岁时赴罗马修习文法、修辞、哲学，后到各地旅游约20年时间，最后定居伯利恒。他博学多才，对古典著作、《圣经》、基督教传统均有过人的理解。他是早期西方教会中学识最渊博的教父，曾将《圣经》的希伯来文《旧约》、希腊文《新约》译成拉丁文。此译本后称通俗拉丁文本，对后世影响极大。圣哲罗姆在翻译上主张通过灵活地译法保持原文的美与风格，而不应拘泥于字句。他将一些人所称的″准确″斥为“学究气的做法”。LetterLVII-deoptimogenereinterpretandi(Excerpts)…TerencehastranslatedMenander;PlautusandCaeciliushavetranslatedtheoldcomicpoets.Butdotheystickattheliteralword?Don’ttheyrathertrytopreservethebeautyandstyleoftheiroriginals?Whatmenlikeyoucallaccuracyintanslation,teacherstwentyyearsago,andeventhenIwasthevictimofthesamesortofmistakewhichisnowfromyou.WhenItranslatedEusebius’ChronicleintoLatin,Imadeamongotherpointsinmyperfacethefollowingobservations:”Itisdifficultwhenoneisfollowinglineslaiddownbyothermennotattimestodivergefromthem;anditisdifficulttoretainintranslationthepaticularverbalfelicitiesofaforeignlanguage.Everysinglewordhasitsownindividualmeaning;itmaybethatIhavenowordwithwhichtorenderit,andifIskirtitwithacircumlocution,Imustmakealengthydetour.Addtothesedifficultiestheproblemsoftortuoustranspositions,case-differences,variationsinmetaphorand,finally,thepeculiarand,asIcallit,indigenousqualityofthelanguage.IfItranslatewordforword,theresultsoundsclumsyandabsurd;ifIamforcedtochangeanythingortorearrange,itwilllookasthoughIhadfailedmydutyasatranslator.”Thenafteralongdiscussionwhichitwouldbetiresometofollowhere,Iadded,“Ifanyonesupposesthattranslationdoesnotdrasticallyaffectstylisticbeauty,lethimrenderHomerwordforwordintoLatin.No,IwillgofurtherandaskhimtoturnHomerintoLatinprose.Andwhatwilltheresultbe?Thesyntaxbecomesridiculous,andthemostarticulatepoetwhoeverlivedisturnedintoastammerer.”Myonlypurposeinquotingfrommyownwritingsistoestablishthatfrommyyouthonwards,Ihavealwaysaimedattranslatingsense,notwords.Butifmyauthorityisinsufficient,readandreflectonthisbriefprefacefromthebiographyofSt.Antony:Aliteraltranslationfromonelanguagetoanotherobscuresthesense;justaswithgrass,toolushagrowthreducestheyield.Solongasdictionissubservienttocasesandgiguresofspeech,aliteraltranslationmustexplainbytiresomecircumlocution(婉转遁词)whatafewwordscouldotherwisemakeclear.ThiserrorIhavetriedtoavoidintranslating,atyourrequest,theliftofSt.Antony;andthoughIamnotalwaysliteral,Ihavebeenfullyloyaltosense.Letothersclutchatsyllablesandwords;foryourpart,lookforthesense.TimewouldfailmeifIcitedaswitnessesallthosewhohavetranslatedaccordingtothesense.ForthepresentIneedonlymentionthecaseofHilarytheConfessor,whotranslatedagroupofHomoliesonJobandseveralPsalmsfromGreekintoLatin.Buthedidnotstickwiththedrowsinessoftheletter,andchainhimselfwithstaleandvulgarliteralism.Likeaconquerorheledawaycaptiveintohisownlanguagethemeaningofhisoriginals…Thus,St.Jerome,themostfamousofalltranslators,citestheauthorityofCicero’sapproachtojustifyhisownLatintranslationoftheGreekSeptuagintOldTestament.Jerome’stranslrtionstrategyisformulatedinDeoptimogenereinterpretandi,aletteraddressedtothesenatorPammchiusin395CE.Inperhapsthemostfamousstatementeveronthetranslationprocess,StJeromo,defendinghimselfagainstcriticismsof“incorrecttranslation”,describeshisstratetyinthefollowingterms:nowInotonlyadmitbutfreelyannouncethatintranslatingfromtheGreek-exceptofcourseinthecaseoftheHolyScripture,whereeventhesyntaxcontainsamystery-Irensenotword-for-word,butsense-for-sense.Althoughsomescholarsarguethatthesetermshavebeenmisinterpreted,Jerome’sstatementisnowusuallytakentorefertowhatcametobeknownas“literal”(word-for-word)and“free”(senseforsense)translation.Jerromedisparagedtheword-for-wordapproachbecause,byfollowingsocloselytheformoftheST,itproducedanabsurdtranslation,cloakingthesenseoftheoriginal.Thesense-for-senseapproach,ontheotherhand,allowthesenseorcontentoftheSTtobetranslated.Inthesepolescanbeseentheoriginofboththe“literalvs.free”and“formvs.content”debatethathascontinueduntilmoderntimes.ToillustratetheconceptoftheTLtakingoverthesenseoftheST,JeromeusesthemilitaryimageoftheoriginaltextbeingmarchedintotheTLlikeaprisonerbyitsconqueror.Interestingly,however,aspartofhisdefence,St.JeromestressesthespecialmysteryofboththemeaningandsyntaxoftheBible,fortobeseentobealteringthesensewasliabletobringachargeofheresy.PrefacetotheBookontheSitesandNameofHebrewPlaces(Excerpt)…IhaveexplainmymethodonceforallintheperfacetomytranslationoftheChronicle,whereIsaidthatImightbecalledatonceatranslatorandacomposerofanewwork…IadmitandconfessmostfreelythatIhavenottranslatedwordforwordinmytranslationofGreektexts,butsenseforsense,exceptinthecaseofthescripturesinwhicheventheorderofthewordsisamystery.Cicerohasbeenmyteacherinthis.文学用意译，圣经用直译。ToledoToledo(Toletum)isacityandmunicipalitylocatedincentralSpain,70kmsouthofMadrid.ItwasdeclaredaWorldHeritageSitebyUNESCOin1986foritsextensiveculturalandmonumentalheritageasoneoftheformercapitalsoftheSpanishEmpireandplaceofcoexistenceofChristian,JewishandMoorishcultures.托莱多这个“翻译院”有三大特点：（1）翻译活动始终得到教会资助；（2）翻译的作品主要是希腊作品的阿拉伯译本，其次是阿拉伯语原作和希腊原作；（3）托莱多是当时西班牙的教育中心和穆斯林学术中心。托莱多大规模翻译的历史意义在于：（1）标志着基督教和穆斯林教之间含有的一次友好接触；（2）它带来了东方人的思想,传播了古希腊文化，活跃了西方的学术空气，推动了西方文化的发展；（3）由于许多译者同时也是学者，在托莱多将手各门知识，托莱多便成了当时西班牙以至西欧的教育中心，并在某种意义上成为西班牙中北地区第一所大学的前身。JohnWycliffe英国WycliffeBibleTranslatorsisanonprofitorganizationdedicatedtomakingatranslationoftheBibleineverylivinglanguageintheworld,especiallyforcultureswithlittleexistingChristianinfluence.Wycliffewasfoundedin1942byWilliamCameronTownsend.Therearecurrentlybranchesinover50countries.TheorganizationisnamedafterJohnWycliffe,thefirstpersontoinitiateatranslationofthewholeBibleintoMiddleEnglish.JohnWycliffe(mid-1320s–31December1384)wasanEnglishtheologian,translatorandreformist.HisfollowersareknownasLollards(罗拉德派).WycliffewasalsoanearlyadvocatefortranslationoftheBibleinthecommontongue.HecompletedhistranslationdirectlyfromtheVulgateintovernacular(白话)Englishintheyear1382,nowknownastheWycliffeBible.ItisbelievedthathepersonallytranslatedtheGospels(福音书)ofMatthew,Mark,Luke,andJohn;anditispossiblehetranslatedtheentireNewTestament,whilehisassociatestranslatedtheOldTestament.Wycliff'sBibleappearstohavebeencompletedby1384,withadditionalupdatedversionsbeingdonebyWycliffe'sassistantJohnPurveyandothersin1388and1395.Atthattime,onlytheeducated(andthosewealthyenoughtobecomeeducated)couldreadandunderstandLatin.Wycliffe’sideawastotranslatetheBibleintothelanguageofthecommonpeople,givingthemthechancetoreadtheBibleanddeveloptheirowninterpretationofit,ratherthantheChurch’scondensedandbiasedversion.ThefirsttranslationofthecompleteBibleintoEnglishwastheWycliffiteBibleproducedbetween1380and1384,whichmarkedthestartofagreatfloeringofEnglishBibletranslationlinkedtochangingattitudestotheroleofthewrittentextinthechurch,thatformedpartofthedevelopingReformatiom.Johnwycliffe,thenotedOxfordtheologian,putforwardthetheoryof”dominionbygrace”accordingtowhichmanwasimmediatelyresponsibletoGodandGod’slaw(bywhichWycliffe’stheorymeantthattheBiblewasapplicabletoallhumanlifeitfollowedthateachmanshouldbegrantedaccesstothatcrucialtextinalanguagethathecouldunderstand,i.e.inthevernacular.)Wycliffie’sviews,whichattractedacircleoffollowers,wereattackedashereticalandheandhisgroupweredenouncedas“lollards”,buttheworkhebegancontinuedtoflourishafterhisdeathandhisdicipleJohnPurveyrevisedthefirsteditionsometimebefore1048(thefirstdatedmanuscript).ThesecondWycliffiteBiblecontainsageneralPrologue,composedbetween1395-1936andthe15thchapteroftheprologuedescribesthefourstagesofthetranslationprocess:(1)acollaborativeeffortofcollectingoldBiblesandglossesandestablishinganauthenticLatinsourcetext;(2)acomparisonoftheversions;(3)counselling“witholdgrammariansandolddivined”abouthardwordsandcomplexmeaning;and(4)translatingasclearlyaspossiblethe“sentence”(i.e.meaning),withthetranslationcorrectedbyagroupofcollaborators.PurveySincethepoliticalfunctionofthetranslationwastomakethecomletetextoftheBibleaccessible,thisledtoadefinitestanceonprioritiesbythetranslator:Purvey’sPrefacestatesclearlythatthetranslatorshalltranslate”afterthesentence”(meaning)andnotonlyafterthewords,”sothatthesentencebeasopenoropener,inEnglishasinLatinandgonotfarfromtheletter.”Whatisaimedatisanintelligible,idiomaticversion:atextthatcouldbeutilizedbythelayman.Theextentofitsimprotancemaybemeasuredbythefactthatthebulkofthe150copiesofPurvey’srevisedBiblewerewrittenevenaftertheprohibition,onpainofexcommunication,oftranslationcirculatedwithouttheapprovalofdiocesanorprovincialcouncilsinJuly1408.珀维在译本的序言中强调使用民族语的重要性，说最好的译文是以拉丁句子而不是以单词为单位译成的。这样，英语的句子就会像拉丁语句子一样明白易懂了，译者应当保证句子的完整明了，以为词是为句子和意思服务的。MartinLuther德国MartinLuther(Nov.1483–Feb.1546)wasaGermanmonk,theologian,universityprofessor,FatherofProtestantism(新教)，andchurchreformerwhoseideasinfluencedtheProtestantReformationandchangedthecourseofWesterncivilization.LuthertranslatedtheBiblefromGreekintoGermantomakeitmoreaccessibletoordinarypeople,ataskhebeganalonein1521duringhisstayintheWartburgcastle.HewasnotthefirsttranslatorofitintoGerman,buthewasbyfarthegreatest,accordingto,whowritesthat,hadLutherdonenothingbutthis,hewouldremainoneofthe"greatestbenefactorsoftheGerman-speakingrace."HistranslationofTheNewTestamentwaspublishedinSeptember1522andtheOldandNewTestamentstogetherin1534.Heworkedonrefiningthetranslationfortherestofhislife.TheLutherBiblecontributedtotheemergenceofthemodernGermanlanguageandisregardedasalandmarkinGermanliterature.TherichestfruitofLuther'sleisureintheWartburg,andthemostimportantandusefulworkofhiswholelife,isthetranslationoftheNewTestament,bywhichhebroughttheteachingandexampleofChristandtheApostlestothemindandheartoftheGermansinlife-likereproduction.Itwasarepublicationofthegospel.HemadetheBiblethepeople'sbookinthechurch,schoolandhome.WithinWesternsociety,issuesoffreeandliteraltranslationwereforoverathousandyearsafterStJeromeboundupwiththetranslationoftheBibleandotherreligiousandphilosophficaltexts.ThepreoccupationoftheRomanCatholicChurchwasforthe“correct”establishedmeaningoftheBibletobetransmitted.Anytranslationdivergingfromtheacceptedinterpretationwaslikelytobedeemedhereticalandbecensuredorbanned.Non-literalornon-acceptedtranslationcametobeseenandusedasaweaponagainsttheChurch.ThemostfamousexampleofthisisMartinLuther’scruciallyinfluentialtranslationintoEastMiddleGermanoftheNewTestament(1522)andlatertheOldTestament(1534).LutherplayedapivotalroleintheReformationwhile,linguistically,hisuseofaregionalyetsociallybroaddialectwentalongwaytoreinforcingthatformofGermanlanguageasstandard.InrespondtoaccusationthathehadalteredtheHolyScripturesinhistranslations,LutherdefendhimselfinhisfamousSendbriefvomDolmetschen(“CircularLetteronTranslation”)of1530.LutherfollowsStJeromeinrejectingaword-for-wordtranslationstrategysinceitwouldbeunabletoconveythemeaningastheSTandwouldsometimesbeincomprehensible.AnexamplehegivesisfromMatthew:ExabundantiacordisosloquiturTheEnglishKingJamesversiontranslatedthisliterallyas:Outoftheabundanceoftheheartthemouthspeaketh.LutertranslatesthiswithacommonGermanproverb:WesderHerzvollist,desgehtdermundüber.(”tospeakstraightfromtheheart”)WhileLuther’streatmentofthefreeandliteraldebatedoesnotshowanyrealadvanceonwhatStJeromehadwrittenelevenhundredyearsbefore,hisinfusionoftheBiblewiththelanguageofordinarypeopleandhisconsiderationoftranslationintermsfocusingontheTLandtheTTreaderwerecrucial.Typicalofthisishisfamousquoteextollingthelanguageofthepeople:Youmustaskthemotherathome,thechildreninthestreet,theordinarymaninthemarketandlookattheirmouths,howtheyspeak,andtranslatethatway;thentheywillunderstandandseethatyou’respeakingtotheminGerman.Fromthattimeonwards,thelanguageofordinaryGermanspeaksclearandstrong,thankstoLuther’stranslation.他的翻译不是逐字逐句的翻译，而是将圣经中的大意（和他自己的理解）翻译为德文。他想使用大众的语言，因此他使用的语言是非常生动、形象、大众化和非常易懂的。他使用的方言是融合了南德和北德方言的中德方言。这也是他家乡的方言。他的圣经翻译为德文的规范化起了决定性的作用。ThehistoryoftheGermanlanguagesincetheMiddleAgesiscloselyassociatedwithtranslationsoftheBIBLE.Overaperiodof1200years,thesetranslationshaveformedacomprehensivecorpusoftextwhichisrepresentative,toaconsiderabledegree,ofGermantranslationcultureanditsdevelopmentthroughtheages.BibletranslationshavenotonlyinfluencedtheformationofChristian-ecclesiaticterminologyandthelanguageofethics;LUTHER’Stranslation,inparicular,hashadaformativeandnormativeeffectonmodernHIGHGerman.TheenormoussuccessofLuther’sBibletranslationmaybeattributetohiscreativeuseoftheGermanvernacularandtohisprincipleoftranslation,butalsotothemasscirculationofhiswritingsmadepossiblebymodernprintingtechniques,andtothehistoricaldynamics—religious,social,politicalandeconomic—oftheReformationperiod.Lutherchosetomeetadauntingchallenge:howtoexpresstheWordofGod,ascodifiedintheBible,inthelanguageofthecommonpeoplewhowereunabletoreadLatin,GreekorHebrew.Asarule,forLuther,expressingthebiblicalmessageinGermanmeanttranslating”freely”,givingthe“letterstheirfreedom”,asitwere.However,whenessentialtheological”truths”wereconcerned,Lutherwouldsacrificethisprincipleofintelligibilityandrevert,fordoctrinalreasons,toword-for-wordtranslation.AsfarasBibletranslationintoGermanisconcernd,theperiodstretchingfromthelate11thtothe16thcenturywasaneraofexperimentationandconsolidation:itproducespecialcopiesforthelaityandforthepoorillustratedaswellasextravagantlyilluminatedcopiesinthevernacular,collectionsofbibilcaltextsforliturgical(礼拜式的)purposes,ect.TheReformationmarkedaturningpointinthehistoryofGermanBibletranslation,withLutherandotherprotestantreformersrevertingtosourcetextsinHebrewandGrreekfortheirtanslationsoftheOldTestamentandNewTestament,respectively.EventheBibletranslationsoftheCatholicCounter-Reformation,byHieronymusEmserandothers,weremodelledonLuther’stext.Indeed,sincethesecondquarterofthe16thcentury,Luther’sinfluencehaspervadedtheentireGermantraditionofBibletranslation,irrepectiveofregionalordenominationalaffiliations.EtinenneDolet法国Followingtheinventionofprintingtechniquesinthe15thcentury,theroleoftranslationunderwentsignificantchanges,notleastduetothegreatincreaseinthevolumeoftranslationsundertaken.Atthesametime,seriousattemptstoformulateatheoryoftranslationwerealsomade.Thefunctionoftranslation,togetherwiththefunctionoflearningitselfchanged.ForasthegreatvoyagesofdiscoveryopenedupaworldoutsideEurope,increasinglysophisticatedclocksandinstrumentsformeasuringtimeandspacedevelopedandthese,togetherwiththetheoryoftheCopernianuniverse,affectedconceptsofcultureandsocietyandradicallyalteredperspectives.OneofthefirstwriterstoformulateatheoryoftranslationwastheFrenchhumanistEtinenneDolet(1509-1546)whowastriedandexecutedforheresyafter”mistranslating”oneofPlato’sdialoguesinsuchawayastoimplydisbeliefinimmortality.In1540Doletpublishedashortoutlineoftranslationprinciples,entailedLamanièredebientraduired’unelangueenaultre(HowtoTranslateWellfromOneLanguageintoAnother)《如何出色地翻译》andestablishedfiveprinciplesforthetranslator:(1)thetranslatormustfullyunderstandthesenseandmeaningoftheoriginalauthor,althoughheisatlibertytoclarifyobscurities.译者必须完全理解译作的内容(2)thetranslatorshouldhaveaperfectknowledgeofbothSLandTL.译者必须通晓所译的语言和译作的语言(3)thetranslatorshouldavoidword-for-wordrendings.译者必须避免逐词对译，以免有损原意传达和原文美感(4)thetranslatorshoulduseformsofspeechincommonuse.译者必须采取通俗的语言形式(5)the