跨文化商务交际第4章文化价值观比较

第4章文化价值观比较Chapter4ComparingCulturalValuesContentsofChapterThreeComparingCulturalValues1.CulturalValues1.1ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandWesternValues1.1.1Differencesinexpressinggratitude1.1.2Differencesinsymbolization1.1.3Differencesinattitudestowardwomen1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues1.2.1Differencesinfriendship1.2.2Differencesintimeconsciousness1.2.3Differencesinconceptionoftheself1.2.4Differencesinapproachestotasks1.2.5Differencesinsocialrelationships2.CulturalDimensions2.1ABriefIntroductionofInfluentialCulturalPatterns2.2GeertHofstedeandHisValueDimensions2.2.1ABriefIntroductionofGeertHofstede2.2.2GeertHofstede’sValuesDimensionsPowerDistanceIndividualismVersusCollectivismMasculinityVersusFemininityUncertaintyAvoidance2.3Hall’sHigh-ContextandLow-ContextCultures2.3.1High-ContextCultures2.3.2Low-ContextCultures2.4OtherDimensions2.4.1FormalityVersusInformality2.4.2Time:PolychronicVersusMonochronicWarm-up:

Readthefollowingsayingsaloud,andthinkitover:whatdotheymeantoyou?Humanbeingsdrawclosetooneanotherbytheircommonnature,buthabitsandcustomskeepthemapart.----Confuciansaying性相近，习相远--论语Godgavetoeverypeopleacup,cupofclay,andfromthiscuptheydranklife…Theyalldippedinthewater,buttheircupsweredifferent.----RuthBenedict

上帝给了每个人一个杯子、一杯粘土，并且人们从这个杯子里面啜饮人生...他们都是浸在水里面的，只是他们的杯子不一样而已----本尼迪克特

RuthBenedict(1887–1948)wasanAmericananthropologistandfolklorist.1.CulturalValues文化价值观Groups,societies,orcultureshavevaluesthatarelargelysharedbytheirmembers.Thevaluesidentifythoseobjects,conditionsorcharacteristicsthatmembersofthesocietyconsiderimportant;thatis,valuable.IntheUnitedStates,forexample,valuesmightincludematerialcomfort,wealth,competition,individualismorreligiosity(笃信宗教,虔诚).Thevaluesofasocietycanoftenbeidentifiedbynotingwhichpeoplereceivehonororrespect.IntheUS,forexample,professionalathletesatthetoplevelsinsomesportsarehonored(intheformofmonetarypayment)morethancollegeprofessors.SurveysshowthatvotersintheUnitedStateswouldbereluctanttoelectanatheistasapresident,suggestingthatbeliefinGodisavalue.1.CulturalValues文化价值观Valuesarerelatedtothenormsofaculture,buttheyaremoreglobalandabstractthannorms.Normsarerulesforbehaviorinspecificsituations,whilevaluesidentifywhatshouldbejudgedasgoodorevil.Flyingthenationalflagonaholidayisanorm,butitreflectsthevalueofpatriotism.Wearingdarkclothingandappearingsolemnarenormativebehaviorsatafuneral.Incertainculturestheyreflectthevaluesofrespectandsupportoffriendsandfamily.Differentculturesreflectdifferentvalues.

1.1ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandWesternValues

中西价值观比较1.1.1Differencesinexpressinggratitude.1.1ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandWesternValues

中西价值观比较1.1.2Differencesinsymbolization(象征，符号表现)2001年10月21日APEC上海非正式会议Red&Blue1.1ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandWesternValues

中西价值观比较1.1.3Differencesinattitudestowardwomen“EldersFirst”NotionChina“LadiesFirst”NotionWesternCountriesVS.1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues

中美价值观比较1.2.1Differencesinfriendship1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues

中美价值观比较1.2.2Differencesintimeconsciousness1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues

中美价值观比较1.2.3Differencesinconceptionoftheself1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues

中美价值观比较1.2.4Differencesinapproachestotasks1.2ComparisonBetweenChineseValuesandAmericanValues

中美价值观比较1.2.5DifferencesinsocialrelationshipsFormalandHierarchicalSocialRelationshipsInformalandEgalitarianSocialRelationshipsVs.ChinaAmerica2.CulturalDimensions文化维度2.1ABriefIntroductionofInfluentialCulturalPatterns(Exhibit1)Howtoclassifydifferentcultures?CulturalpatternsKluckhohnandStrodtbeck’sValueOrientationHofstede’sDimensionsofCulturalVariabilityEdwardTHall’sContext-CultureTheoryHumanNatureMan-natureTimeActivitySocialRelationshipIndividualismVsCollectivismUncertaintyAvoidancePowerDistanceMasculinityVsFemininityHigh-ContextLow-ContextExhibit12.CulturalDimensions文化维度2.2GeertHofstedeandHisValueDimensions2.2.1ABriefIntroductionofGeertHofstede2.2.1ABriefIntroductionofGeertHofstede

GerardHendrikHofstede(born3October1928,)isaninfluentialDutchorganizationalsociologist,whostudiedtheinteractionsbetweennational

culturesandorganizationalcultures.HeisalsoanauthorofseveralbooksincludingCulture'sConsequencesandCulturesandOrganizations,SoftwareoftheMind,co-authoredwithhissonGertJanHofstede.Hofstede'sstudydemonstratedthattherearenationalandregionalculturalgroupingsthataffectthebehaviorofsocietiesandorganizations,andthatthesearepersistentacrosstime.ModelbyG.Hofstede(1984)Hofstede’sworkwasoneoftheearliestattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues.Duringthe1980s,hesurveyedoverahundredthousandworkersinmultinationalorganizationsinfortycountries.Eachcountrywasassignedarankofonethroughfortyineachcategory,dependingonhowitcomparedtotheothercountry.Hofstede’sFourCulturalValueSystem

Individualism-CollectivismUncertaintyAvoidancePowerDistanceMasculinity-Femininity2.CulturalDimensions文化维度2.2.2GeertHofstede’sValueDimensionsPowerDistance权力距离Definition:Powerdistanceisthedegreetowhichpowerdifferencesareexpectedandacceptedbysociety.TheBossandWorkPowerDistancePowerDistance权力距离PowerDistance①LowPowerDistanceCulture低权力距离文化Lowpowerdistanceculturevalueshorizontalrelationshipswhereeveryoneisonalevelplayingfield.TheCharacteristicsofLowPowerDistanceCultureThecharacteristicsoflowpowerdistanceculturearebasicallyreflectedinthefollowingfacets:Ⅰ.Decision-MakingⅡ.ReadinesstoComplainaboutViolationofPersonalFreedomⅢ.SenseofEqualityⅣ.InformalityⅤ.AuthorityFigures’PronenesstoAdmitMistakesPowerDistance②HighPowerDistanceCulture高权力距离文化Highpowerdistancecultureemphasizestheunequaldistributionofpowerininstitutionsandorganizationsinahierarchyofprivilege.Afewpeoplehavealotofpower;thevastmajorityhaslittle.TheCharacteristicsofHighPowerDistanceCultureThecharacteristicsofhighpowerdistanceculturearebasicallyreflectedinthefollowingfacets:Ⅰ.TheMaintenanceofHigh-StatusandPrestigeⅡ.FormalityⅢ.DeferenceⅣ.AuthorityFigures’ReluctancetoAdmitMistakesCaseAnalysis:HighandLowPowerDistanceCulturesDifferentpowerdistanceorientationsmanifestthemselvesininteraction.Inthedialoguebelow,JimNeumanisaU.S.highschoolexchangestudentinGuatemala(危地马拉).Comingfromalowerpowerdistanceculture,Jimisaccustomedtointeractingwithhisteachers.Raisingone’shandinaU.S.classroomisnotonlyacceptable,butencouraged.InGuatemala,ahigherpowerdistanceculture,theclassroomisteacher-centered.InMr.Gutierrez’sclassroom,thereistobestrictorder.Teachersaretobetreatedwithdeference.Mr.Gutierrez:ThismorningIwillbediscussingsomepointsaboutGuatemala’sgeography.GuatemalaisthenorthernmostcountryofCentralAmerica(JimNeumanraiseshishand).TothenorthitbordersthecountriesofElSalvadorandHonduras.Tothewest,itsnaturalborderisthePacificOcean.Intheeastisanothernaturalborder,theAtlanticOcean,aswellasthecountryofBelize.JimNeuman:(Raisinghishandandwavingitslightly).Mr.Gutierrez?Mr.Gutierrez:Guatemalaiscalledthe“LandoftheEternalSpring.〞ThereareallofthesamekindsofnaturallandformsasinMexico,butare…(JimNeumaninterrupts)JimNeuman:Mr.Gutierrez,Ihaveaquestion.Mr.Gutierrez:Jim,stopinterrupting,please.JimNeuman:MayIaskaquestion?Mr.Gutierrez:No!Ifyoucontinuetodisobey,Iwillpunishyou!Bequiet!CountryorRegionRanking＊CountryorRegionRanking＊Argentina25Japan22Australia29Mexico2Austria40Netherlands28Belgium12NewZealand37Brazil7Norway34Canada27Pakistan21Chile15Peru13Colombia10Philippines1Denmark38Portugal16Finland33Singapore6France9SouthAfrica24Germany30Spain20GreatBritain31Sweden35Greece17Switzerland32HongKong8Taiwan19India4Thailand14Iran18Turkey11Ireland36U.S.A26Israel39Venezuela3Italy23Yugoslavia5RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonPowerDistance＊Alowscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedasonethatprefersahighpowerdistance;ahighscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatpreferalowpowerdistance.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture’sConsequences:InternationalDifferencesinWork-RelatedValuesIndividualismVersusCollectivism

个人主义和集体主义IndividualismVersusCollectivism

个人主义和集体主义①IndividualisticCulture个人主义文化①IndividualisticCulture个人主义文化①IndividualisticCulture个人主义文化Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.(BenjaminFranklin)(self-reliance)Pullyourselfupbyyourownbootstraps(长统靴的拔靴带).靠自己的努力出人头地Doyourownthing.(Independence)Thesqueakywheelgetsthegrease.(IndividualExpression)Aman’shomeishiscastle.(Privacy)①IndividualisticCulture个人主义文化Inculturesthattendtowardindividualism,an“I〞consciousnessprevails:⑴competitionratherthancooperationisencouraged;⑵personalgoalstakeprecedenceovergroupgoals;⑶peopletendnottobeemotionallydependentonorganizationsandinstitutions;⑷everyindividualhastherighttohisorherprivateproperty,thoughts,andopinions.Casestudy:

Atthenegotiatingtable,differencesinthisdimensioncanclearlycauseseriousconflict.AmericanstoooftenexpecttheirJapanesecounterpartstomakedecisionsrightatthenegotiatingtable,andtheJapaneseareconstantlysurprisedtofindindividualmembersoftheAmericanteampromotingtheirownpositions,decisions,andideas,sometimesopenlycontradictingoneanother.America—individualismJapan—collectivism

①IndividualisticCulture个人主义文化IndividualismVersusCollectivism

个人主义和集体主义②CollectivisticCulture集体主义文化②CollectivisticCulture集体主义文化Collectivisticcultureplacesgreateremphasison⑴theviews,needs,andgoalsofthein-group(内部集团)ratherthanoneself;⑵socialnormsanddutydefinedbythein-groupratherbehaviortogetpleasure;⑶beliefssharedwiththein-groupratherthanbeliefsthatdistinguishselffromin-group;⑷greatreadinesstocooperatewithin-groupmembers.②CollectivisticCulture集体主义文化TheNailthatsticksupwillbepoundeddown.(JapaneseProverb)突出来的钉子会被敲下去。（日本谚语）枪打出头鸟。（中国谚语）Itistheduckthatsquawksthatgetsshot.叫得最大声的鸭子最先被打下去。（日本谚语）Thehighestblade(叶片)ofgrassisalwaysthefirsttobecut.(长得最高的一片草叶总是最先被剪掉。)(前苏联谚语)CaseOne:OneBritishconsultantvisitingasmallfamily-ownedSaudiArabianmanufacturerinvestigatingthepossibilityofbecomingapubliccompanywasbothimpressedandexasperatedbythefamily’sdevotiontothebusiness’sloyalemployees.“Thecompany’sownershipfacedsomehardchoicesiftheywantedtogopublicandtapintooverseascapital,〞theconsultantsaid.“Theworkforcewasterriblybloated(膨胀的，傲慢的)andinefficient.Outputandrevenueperemployeewasembarrassinglylow.WhenIexplainedthissituationtotheowners,theyonlyshrugged.“Thereisnotmuchwecando.Mostofouremployeeshavebeenhereformanyyears，’theysaid.〞“Theybalkedat(畏缩，回避)theideaoflayoffsandfirings.Theirsolution:cutpayacrosstheboardandreduceeverybody’shours.Theworkersunderstood.Noonecomplainedandmanyeventhankedtheownersforsavingtheirjobs.Iwasstunned.ImeancouldyouimaginethatsortofideaflyingwithaGermanunionoranAmericanmanufacturer?〞Thelessonlearned:whendealinginahighlycollectivizedcultureitmaybewisertotrimthepayofallworkersinadownturnratherthanlayoffindividuals.Theworkersthemselvesmayactuallywantitthatway.Thecaseisanexcellentexampleofhowadifferentculturalmind-setcanpresentcreativesolutionstouniversalbusinessproblems.CaseTwo:Inthefollowingexchange,Mr.Patterson,anAmericanmanagerworkinginKorea,ismeetingwithhissupervisor,Mr.Wyman,whoisalsoAmerican.TheUnitedStatesisconsideredanindividualisticculturewhereasKoreaisconsideredcollectivistic.Inthisscenario,Mr.PattersonreportstoMr.Wymanaboutsomechangeshehasmadewithinseveralofhissalesteams.Later,ParkYoungSam,theirKoreancounterpart,entersintothedialogue.Mr.Patterson:GoodmorningMr.Wyman,thanksformeetingwithmethismorning.Asyouknow,ourdivisionhasbeendoingverywellthisquarter.Infact,ournumbersareupacrosstheboard.Mr.Wyman:Yes,I’veseenyourquarterlyreports.Nicejob!Mr.Patterson:Thanks.Inordertorecognizetheirhardwork,I’vemadesomechangesinoursalesteams.I’vecreatedteamleadersineachgroup.Inourproductgroup,IpromotedLeeYoung-sam.Inthemarketinggroup,IpromotedChunTae-woo,andinthetechnologygroup,IpromotedChoiMino.Allofthemhavebeenrealleaders.Ithinkthisideawillreallymotivatethem.Infact,Imetwiththegroupsindividuallyandannouncedthepromotions.Mr.Wyman:Goodjob,Patterson.Icanseeyou’rereallyontopofthings.Goodwork.TwoMonthsLaterMr.Patterson,Mr.Wyman,andParkYoungSam,aKoreanmanager,arediscussingthepoorperformanceofMr.Patterson’ssalesteams.Mr.Wyman:Well,justlookatthesedismalresults.Thenumbersforthisquarterarewaydownfromlastquarter.What’shappened?Mr.Patterson:Idon’tknow.EversinceIintroducedtheteamleaderconceptthegroups’productivityhasreallyplummeted.Ithoughtitwasagreatidea.IguessIchosethewrongpeopletoleadtheteams.I’llassignnewleaderstomorrow.ParkYoungSam:Well…youmayselectnewleadersifyoudesire,butthemenyouchosewereallverycapable.However,byelevatingthemyoumadethemstandoutanddisruptedtheharmonyofeachgroup.InKorea,weallworkhardforthegroup…notjustoneperson.Mr.Patterson:IguessIshouldhavejustleftthingsastheywere.CountryorRegionRanking＊CountryorRegionRanking＊Argentina23Japan22Australia2Mexico29Austria18Netherlands5Belgium8NewZealand6Brazil25Norway13Canada4Pakistan38Chile33Peru37Colombia39Philippines28Denmark9Portugal30Finland17Singapore34France11SouthAfrica16Germany15Spain20GreatBritain3Sweden10Greece27Switzerland14HongKong32Taiwan36India21Thailand35Iran24Turkey26Ireland12U.S.A1Israel19Venezuela40Italy7Yugoslavia31RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonIndividualismandCollectivism＊Ahighscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedascollective;alowerscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatpromoteindividualism.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture’sConsequences:InternationalDifferencesinWork-RelatedValuesMasculinityVersusFemininity

男性气质和女性气质①MasculineCulture男性气质文化Masculinityistheextenttowhichthedominantvaluesinasocietyaremaleorientedandisassociatedwithsuchbehaviorsasambition,differentiatedsexroles,achievement,theacquisitionofmoney,andsignsofmanliness.①MasculineCulture男性气质文化

TheDivisionofLaborinJapan

Provider(养家糊口的人)Homemaker(主妇)MostJapaneseMenMostJapaneseWomenCaseStudy:Jane,anAmerican,hadaverygoodJapanesefriendSukilivinginJapan.Sukiwasatalenteddesignerworkingforafamouscompany.SukidecidedtogetmarriedandinvitedJanetoherwedding.Thus,JaneflewtoJapantoherwedding.SukiwantedtointroduceherfiancétoJane,sotheyallhaddinnertogether.Duringdinner,theybeganapleasantconversation,andSuki’sfiancéwasniceandpolitetoJane.ThenSukitoldJanethatshewouldquitherjobandbeahousewifeaftermarriage.Janewassurprised.ShetoldSukithatsheshouldnotwastehertalentandthatshestillshouldcontinuetoworkevenaftermarriage.Sukisaidthatasahousewifeshewouldbeverybusyandthattherewouldbenotimeforwork.Besides,theyhaddecidedtohaveababy,andthiswouldincreasetheworkloadforSuki.JanesuggestedthatSukicouldsharethehouseworkwithherhusbandsoshecouldhavetimetodevelophercareer.Sukiseemedembarrassed,whileherfiancéremainedsilentfortherestoftheevening.Janefeltthathisattitudetowardherbecamecold.WhytherewasachangeintheattitudeofSuki’sfiancétowardJane?②FeminineCulture女性气质文化Feminineculturestressescaring(关心人的，体贴人的)andnurturingbehavior.Afemaleworldviewmaintainsthatmenneednotbeassertive(坚决自信的；坚决主张的)andthattheycanassumenurturingroles;italsopromotessexualequalityandholdsthatpeopleandtheenvironmentareimportant.Genderrolesinfemininesocietiesaremorefluidthaninmasculinesocieties.Interdependenceandandrogynous(兼具两性的)behavioraretheideal,andpeoplesympathizewiththeunfortunate.CountryorRegionRanking＊CountryorRegionRanking＊Argentina18Japan1Australia14Mexico6Austria2Netherlands38Belgium20NewZealand15Brazil23Norway39Canada21Pakistan22Chile34Peru31Colombia11Philippines10Denmark37Portugal33Finland35Singapore24France29SouthAfrica12Germany9Spain30GreatBritain8Sweden40Greece16Switzerland5HongKong17Taiwan27India19Thailand32Iran28Turkey26Ireland7U.S.A13Israel25Venezuela3Italy4Yugoslavia36RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonMasculinityandFemininity＊Ahighscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedasonethatfavorsfemininetraits;alowerscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatprefermasculinetraits.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture’sConsequences:InternationalDifferencesinWork-RelatedValuesUncertaintyAvoidance

不确定性躲避What’suncertaintyavoidance?Uncertaintyavoidanceisthedegreetowhichthesocietyiswillingtoacceptanddealwithambiguityanduncertainty.UncertaintyAvoidance

不确定性躲避“Thefutureiscalled‘perhaps’,whichistheonlypossiblethingtocallthefuture.”AmericanplaywrightTennesseeWilliamsHigh-uncertainty-avoidanceculturestrytoavoiduncertaintyandambiguitybyprovidingstabilityfortheirmembers,establishingmoreformalrules,nottoleratingdeviantideasandbehaviors,seekingconsensus,andbelievinginabsolutetruthsandtheattainmentofexpertise.Theyarealsocharacterizedbyahigherlevelofanxietyandstress:peoplethinkoftheuncertaintyinherentinlifeasacontinuoushazardthatmustbeavoided.There’sastrongneedforwrittenrules,planning,regulations,rituals,andceremonies,whichaddstructuretolife.①HighUncertaintyAvoidance高度不确定性躲避CaseOne:“Icouldn’tbelieveit.Itwaslikebeinginatimewarp(停留在过去),〞explainsoneBritishaccountantemployedbyalargemultinationalfirm.“IwalkedintoourFrankfurtofficeanditsprocedureswerefiveyearsbehindourLondonoffice.WeknewtherewassomeresistancetoournewaccountingrulesbuttheyweregettingtheworkdoneinFrankfurt,albeitalittleslowly.Iwasn’tpreparedfortheirexplanationthough.〞ThemanageroftheGermanaccountingdepartmentfeltuncomfortablewiththenewsystemandorderedworkerstokeeptwosetsofaccounts-----oneintheoldsystemandoneinthenew.“Hejustsaidhewasnervousandafraidthatthenewsystemwouldn’tworkandhisstaffhadbecomeanxiousthattheywouldbeblamedforerrors.Hissolutionwastoavoidtheriskbykeepingtwosetsofaccounts.Ifoundthatextraordinary,〞theBritishaccountantsays.CHANGEISARISKYBUSINESSCaseTwo:Uncertaintyavoidanceorientationcanbeseeninthiscase.Inthedialoguepresentedbelow,KellyandKeikoareinteractingaboutadinnerinvitation.Kelly,fromtheUnitedStates,possessesarelativelylowuncertaintyavoidanceindex,whileKeiko,fromJapan,comesfromaculturewitharelativelyhighuncertaintyavoidanceindex.Keiko:Hey,Kelly,let’sdosomethingtonight.Kelly:Allright.Keiko:PleasecomeovertomyhouseandI’llcookdinnerforyou.Kelly:Ihaveinvitedsomefriendsovertomyhousefordinnertonight,butIdon’tknowifthey’recoming.Keiko:Well…assoonasyouknowifthey’recoming,letmeknow.Kelly:Iwon’tknowuntiltonight.Keiko:Whattime?Kelly:Iwon’tknowuntiltheycallme.They’llprobablycalllaterthisafternoon.Keiko:Howwillyouknowwhetherornottocookenoughforeveryone?Kelly:Oh,I’llmakeupsomethingonthespot.Iliketocook.I’llwhipupsomethingfast.Keiko:But…whatiftheydon’tcome?Won’ttheycallandletyouknow?Kelly:No…iftheydon’tcome,I’llknowthatsomethingelsecameup.I’llletyouknowassoonasIcan.Keiko:Maybeweshouldplanmydinnerforsomeothernight.②LowUncertaintyAvoidance

低度不确定性躲避

Low-uncertainty-avoidanceculturesmoreeasilyaccepttheuncertaintyinherentinlifeandaren’tasthreatenedbydeviantpeopleandideas,sotheytoleratetheunusual.Theyprizeinitiative,dislikethestructureassociatedwithhierarchy,aremorewillingtotakerisks,aremoreflexible,thinkthatthereshouldbeasfewrulesaspossible,anddependnotsomuchonexpertsasonthemselves,generalists(通才),andcommonsense.Lifeshouldbeadance,notarace.(IrishProverb)CountryorRegionRanking＊CountryorRegionRanking＊Argentina10Japan4Australia27Mexico12Austria19Netherlands26Belgium3NewZealand30Brazil16Norway28Canada31Pakistan18Chile6Peru7Colombia14Philippines33Denmark39Portugal2Finland24Singapore40France7SouthAfrica29Germany21Spain9GreatBritain35Sweden38Greece1Switzerland25HongKong37Taiwan20India34Thailand22Iran23Turkey11Ireland36U.S.A32Israel13Venezuela15Italy17Yugoslavia5RankingofFortyCountriesorRegionsonUncertaintyAvoidance＊Alowscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedasonethatdoesnotlikeuncertainty;ahighscoreisassociatedwithculturesthatdonotfeeluncomfortablewithuncertainty.Source:AdaptedfromGeertHofstede,Culture’sConsequences:InternationalDifferencesinWork-RelatedValues跨文化模型个人主义：社会中个人与群体之间的关系不确定性避免：对不同危险事物的典型反应霍夫斯蒂特模型男性度：性别角色的期望权利距离：人与人之间平等的期望跨文化模型高的权力距离，弱的不确定性避免。属于这种类型的国家和地区有：新加坡、香港、印度、菲律宾低的权力距离，强的不确定性避免。属于这种类型的国家有：芬兰、瑞士、奥地利、前联邦德国、以色列低的权力距离，弱的不确定性防止。属于这种类型的国家有：丹麦、英国、美国、南非、挪威、澳大利亚、荷兰123440个国家和地区在权力距离和不确定性防止维度上的分类：高的权力距离，强的不确定性避免。属于这种类型的国家和地区有：伊朗、中国台湾省、意大利、巴西、法国、日本、希腊

跨文化模型弱的不确定性避免，男性度。属于这种类型的国家和地区有香港、英国、爱尔兰。新加坡处于最弱的男性度强的不确定性避免，女性度。属于这种类型的国家和地区有：伊朗、泰国、中国的台湾省、巴基斯坦弱的不确定性防止，女性度。属于这种类型的国家有：丹麦、瑞典、挪威、荷兰、芬兰处于向强的不确定性防止靠拢123440个国家和地区在不确定性防止和男性维度上的分类：强的不确定性避免，男性度。属于这种类型的国家有瑞士、前联邦德国、奥地利、意大利。日本的男性度、希腊不确定性指数高跨文化模型大的权力距离，集体主义。属于这种类型的国家和地区有巴基斯坦、哥伦比亚、中国的台湾省、日本、印度小的权力距离，个人主义。属于这种类型的国家有以色列、挪威、爱尔兰、瑞士、加拿大、英国、美国123440个国家和地区在权力距离和个人主义维度上的分类：大的权力距离，个人主义。属于这种类型的国家有西班牙、南非、法国、意大利、比利时上述的研究仍然是不够全面的，其中缺乏苏联、东欧国家的材料，同样也没有中国的调查资料，因而其结果仍是地区性的。UncertaintyavoidanceMasculinity-femininityIndividualism-collectivismPowerdistanceDegreetowhichpeoplearecomfortablewithambiguity&uncertainty.(NotRiskTolerance)Dominance,independencevs.compassion,interdependence,&openness.(Competitionv.Cooperation)Emphasisonindividualgoals,needs,&successvs.groupneeds,satisfaction,&performance.Degreetowhichpeopleacceptpower&statusdifferencesinsociety.ConfucianismdynamismLong-TermOrientationAfutureorientedperspective"sacrificeforthefuture."2.3Hall’sHigh-ContextandLow-ContextCultures2.3.1High-contextCulture:HighcontextcultureandthecontrastinglowcontextculturearetermspresentedbytheanthropologistEdwardT.Hallinhis1976bookBeyondCulture.Itreferstoaculture'stendencytousehighcontextmessagesoverlowcontextmessagesinroutinecommunication.Thischoiceofcommunicationstylestranslatesintoaculturethatwillcatertowardsin-groups,anin-groupbeingagroupthathassimilarexperiencesandexpectations,fromwhichinferencesaredrawn.Inahighcontextculture,manythingsareleftunsaid,lettingthecultureexplain.Wordsandwordchoicebecomeveryimportantinhighercontextcommunication,sinceafewwordscancommunicateacomplexmessageveryeffectivelytoanin-group(butlesseffectivelyoutsidethatgroup).2.3.1High-contextCultureCaseOne:Oneday,anAmericanbusinessmanwenttovisitaChinesefamilywithoneofhisChinesefriends.Inthelivingroom,theAmericanwasmuchinterestedbytheChinesehandicraftsontheshelves.Hepointedtooneofthehandicraftsandextolleditparticularly.TheChinesehostimmediatelytookthehandicraftoutoftheshelfandgaveittotheAmericanandsaid,“Haveitasapresentfromme.〞TheAmericanwassurprised.Herefusedtotakeitandsaid,“Ididn’tmeanit.Itisaprecioushandicraft.〞ButtheChinesehostdidnotstopofferinguntiltheAmericantookit.Hefeltembarrassedwiththehandicraftinhishand.Thenextday,theAmericanbusinessmanexplainedtohisChinesefriend:“Ididnohaveanyintentiontohavethehandicraft.Icomplimentedthehostonthehandicraftjustbecauseitisgood.Imeantnothingelseatall.〞2.3.1High-contextCultureCaseTwo:ATurkishmalegraduatestudent(研究生)intheUnitedStatessharedaroomwithanAmerican.Onedayhisroommatewentintothebathroomandcompletelyshavedhishead.TheTurkishstudentdiscoveredthiswhenhevisitedthebathroomandsawthehaireverywhere.Hereturnedtohisroomandsaidtohisroommate,“You’veshavedyourhead.〞TheAmericanreplied,“Yeah,Idid.〞TheTurkishstudentwaitedalittle,thensaid,“Idiscoveredyou’dshavedyourheadwhenIwentintothebathroomandsawthehair.〞“Yeah,〞theAmericanconfirmed.CaseTwo:TheTurkwasataloss.HebelievedhehadcommunicatedinthestrongestpossiblelanguagehiswishthattheAmeri