《语言学导论》期末复习及练习

《语言学导论》复习及各章节练习

CHAPTERONE

I.Designfeaturesoflanguage:productivity,duality,arbitrariness,anddisplacement

II.Originoflanguage:

•Themysteriousoriginofthelanguageorholyorigin

•Bow-wow自然模声说

•Yo-he-ho劳动号子说

•Evolution进化说

•Conventionalism约定俗成说

•Innatism先天论

•After-birthacquisition后天习得说

•Gestures手势说

•Embodiment体验说（Reality-cognition-language）

III.Functionsoflanguage:

informativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phatic

communion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction

IV.Linguisticsanditsbranches

1.Sixperiodsoflinguistics

•Philology传统语文学时期（19世纪前）

•Historical&comparativelinguistics历史比较语言学时期（19世纪）

•Structurallinguistics结构主义语言学时期（20世纪初）

•Functionallinguistics系统功能主义语言学时期（20世纪中）

•Transferredgenerativelinguistics转换生成语言学时期（20世纪匚|」）

•Cognitivelinguistics认知语言学时期（20世纪80年代）

2.internalbranches:inrea-disciplinarydivisions（内部分支）

1）Phonetics（语音学）studieshowspeechsoundsarepronounced,transmittedand

perceived.

2）Phonology（音系学）isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthestructure,distributionand

sequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.（研究语音和音节的结构、

分布和序列）

3）Morphology（形态学）isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudies

theminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.

4）Syntax（句法学）isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsare

combinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyofinterrelationshipsbetween

elementsinsentencestructures.

5)Semantics(语义学)isthestudyofhowmeaningisencodedinalanguage,oritisthe

studyofmeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.

6)Pragmatics(语用学)isthestudyofmeaningincontextorinuse.

3.externalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisions(外部分支：跨学科分支，即宏观语言

学分支)

1)Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftheinterrelationoflanguageandmind.

2)Sociolinguisticsstudiesthecharacteristicsoflanguagesvarieties,languagefunctions

andspeakersasthethreeinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.

3)Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestheemergenceoflanguageandthedivergenceof

languageoverthousandsofyears.

4)Computationallinguisticsstudiestheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehuman

language.

ChapterTwoPhonetics

1.Sub-branchesofphonetics

Articulatoryphonetics:theproductionofspeechsounds

Acousticphonetics:thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds

Auditoryphoneticsorperceptualphonetics:theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds

2.Groupsofspeechsounds

Consonantsandvowels

3.Waystodescribeconsonants

1)positionofarticulation

2)mannerofarticulation

3)voicedorvoiceless

4.Waystodescribevowels

1)theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);

2)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)

3)thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short);

4)lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)

ChapterThreePhonology

I.PhonemesandAllophones

1.Phoneme:adistinctive,abstractsoundwithadistinctivefeature(具有区别意义的最小

语音单位)

2.Allophones:thevariantsofaphoneme(音位变体)

3.Contrastivedistribution(对立分布)：thetypicaltobefoundinMinimalPairs(最小对

比对）。AMinimalPairreferstotwowordswhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyone

distinctivesound（onephoneme）andwhichalsodifferinmeaning,forexample,bear

andpear.

4.Complementarydistribution（互补分布）rallophonesarenotfoundinthesameposition

5.Freevariation（自由变体）：Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutual

substitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

II.SuprasegmentalFeatures（超音段特征）

Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,toneandintonation.

ChapterFourMorphology

I.Morpheme

1.Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage（最小的有意义的语言单位）

2.FreeMorphemes（自由语素）andBoundMorphemes（黏着语素）

1）Freemorphemes:Morphemesconstitutingwordsbythemselvesarecalledfree

morphemes.Theyarerootsofwords.

2）Boundmorphemes:Morphemesalwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnew

wordsarecalledboundmorphemes.Theyareaffixesofwords,whichcanbefurther

dividedintoinflectionalaffixes（屈折词缀）andderivationalaffixes（派生词缀）.

3）InflectionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tense

andaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.

4）Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstruct

newwords.

II.WordFormation

1.Derivation（派生法）

2.Compounding（复合法）

3.Lexicalchangeproper（特有的词汇变化）

Inventionorcoinage

Blending

Abbreviation

Acronym

Back-formation

Borrowing

III.Semanticchange

Broadening（词义扩大）

Narrowing（词义缩小）

Metathesis（

Meaningshift（词义转移）

ChapterFiveSyntax

I.TraditionalGrammar（传统语法）

1.Intraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassified

intopartsofspeech.

2.Sentencesareanalysedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,

predicatesandpredicator.

3.Nouns:number,case,gender,countability

4.Verbs:tense,aspect,voice

5.Agreementinnumber,personandgender

II.StructuralGrammar（结构主义语法）

1.ItwasfoundedbySaussure,whodistinguishesthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker

andtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsasLangue（语言）andparole（言语）.

2.Structuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatetraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththe

inter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,

wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.

3.Keyconcepts:syntagmaticandparadigmatic（associative）relations（横组合关系和纵聚

合关系/联想关系），structureandsystem（结构与系统），immediateconstituents

analysis（直接成分分析法）,endocentricandexocentricconstructions（向心结构与离心

结构）

III.Transformational-Generative（TG）Grammar（转换生成语法）

1.ItwasfoundedbyNoamChomsky,whobelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate----

TheInnatenessHypothesis（天赋假说）andthatchildrenarebornwithaLanguage

AcquisitionDevice（语言习得机制），whichconsistsofthreeelements:a

hypothesis-maker（假设标记），linguisticuniversal（语言普遍现象）andanevaluation

procedure（评估程序）。

2.Chomskydistinguishesalanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules

andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationasCompetence（语言能力）and

Performance（语言运用）.TGGrammartakestheidealspeaker'slinguisticcompetenceas

theobjectofstudy.

3.TGGrammarhasexperiencedfivestagesofdevelopment:theClassicalTheory,the

StandardTheory,theExtendedStandardTheory,theRevisedExtendedStandardTheory

andtheMinimalistProgram.

IV.Systematic-FunctionalGrammar（系统功能语法）

1.ItwasfoundedbyM.A.K.Hallidayandtakesactualusesoflanguageastheobjectof

study.

2.TheGrammarhastwocomponents:SystematicGrammarandFunctionalGrammar.

3.Keyconcepts:themeandrheme（主位和述位），communicativedynamism（交际动力），

thethreemeta-functionsoflanguage-ideationalfunction（概念功interpersonal

function（人际功能）andtexualfunction（文本功能）.

Summary

SchoolsrepresentativesTheoriesandConcepts

1SaussureLanguageisasystemofsigns.

StructuralGrammar

2ChomskyTGGrammar

ThePragueSchool/Synchroniclinguisticstudy

Languageisfunctional.

FunctionalSentencePerspective（FSP）

ThemeandRheme

TheLondonSchoolFirthTheobjectoflinguisticsislanguagein

Hallidyactualuse.

Systematic-FunctionalGrammar

AmericanStructuralismBoasandSapirSapir-WhorfHypothesis

BloomfieldBehaviorisminlinguistics

ChapterSixSemantics

I.DefinitionofMeaning

II.G.Leechandhis7typesofmeaning:Conceptualmeaning,Connotativemeaning,Social

meaning,Affectivemeaning,Reflectedmeaning,CollocativemeaningandThematic

meaning.

III.Theconceptualview（概念主义观点）:semantictriangle（语义三角）byOgden&

Richards-SymbolorForm,Referent,andThoughtorReference.

IV.Contextualism（语境主义）：tobasemeaningoncontext;arepresentativeofthisapproach

wasJ.R.Firth.

V.Behaviorism（行为主义）:themeaningofalanguageformisthesituationinwhichthe

speakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer;asupporterofthisapproach

wasBloomfield,whowasaprinciplerepresentativeofAmericanStructuralism.

VI.KeyConcepts

1.Lexicalsenserelations（词汇含义关系）

Synonymy（同义关系）

Polysemy（一词多义）

Homonymy（同音或同形异义关系）

Hyponymy（上下义关系）

Antonymy（反义关系）

2.sententialsenserelations（语句含义关系）

Tautology（同义反复句）

Contradiction（自相矛盾句）

Inconsistency（矛盾关系）

Synonymousness（同义关系）

Entailment（衍推关系）

Presupposition（预设）

Semanticallyanomalousness（语义反常句）

ChapterSevenPragmatics语用学

I.SpeechActTheory（言语行为理论）

1.Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse;

2.FoundedbyJohnLangshawAustin;

3.Themajorideaisthatthingscanbedonewithwords;

4.Twotypesofsentences：performativeandConstative（行事话语与叙事话语）

5.TheoryoftheIllocutionary（行事行为理论）：LocutionaryAct（言内行为）,

IllocutionaryAct（言外行为），PerlocutionaryAct（言后行为）

ILConversationalImplicature（会话含义理论）

1.ProposedbyHerbertGrice;

2.TheCooperativePrinciples（合作原则）：

QuantityMaxim（数量准则）

QualityMaxim（质量准则）

RelationMaxim（关系准则）

MannerMaxim（方式准则）

Chapter1IntroductionstoLinguistics

I.Choosethebestanswer.

1.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhuman.

A.contactB.communicationC.relationD.community

2.Whichofthefollowingwordsisentirelyarbitrary?

A.treeB.typewriterC.crashD.bang

3.Thefunctionofthesentence“Waterboilsat100degreesCentigrade.^^is.

A.interrogativeB.directiveC.informativeD.Performative

4.InChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelyto

say”碎碎（岁岁）平安”asameansofcontrollingtheforceswhichtheybelievesfeelmight

affecttheirlives.Whichfunctionsdoesitperform?

A.InterpersonalB.EmotiveC.PerformativeD.Recreational

5.Whichofthefollowingpropertyoflanguageenableslanguageuserstoovercomethebarriers

causedbytimeandplace,duetothisfeatureoflanguage,speakersofalanguagearefreeto

talkaboutanythinginanysituation?

A.TransferabilityB.DualityC.DisplacementD.Arbitrariness

6.Studythefollowingdialogue.Whatfunctiondoesitplayaccordingtothefunctionsof

language?

—Aniceday,isn'tit?

一Right!Ireallyenjoythesunlight.

A.EmotiveB.PhaticC.PerformativeD.Interpersonal

7.referstotheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeofthe

rulesofhislanguageinutterances.

A.PerformanceB.CompetenceC.LangueD.Parole

8.Whenadogisbarking,youassumeitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistshear

andnow.Itcouldn'tbesorrowfulforsomelostloveorlostbone.Thisindicatesthedesign

featureof.

A.culturaltransmissionB.productivityC.displacementD.duality

9.answerssuchquestionsashowweasinfantsacquireourfirstlanguage.

A.PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropologicallinguistics

C.SociolinguisticsD.Appliedlinguistics

10.dealswithlanguageapplicationtootherfields,particularlyeducation.

A.LinguistictheoryB.Practicallinguistics

C.AppliedlinguisticsD.Comparativelinguistics

ILDecidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.

11.Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Therefore,thecommunicationwayusedbythe

deaf-muteisnotlanguage.

12.Languagechangeisuniversal,ongoingandarbitrary.

13.Speakingisthequickestandmostefficientwayofthehumancommunicationsystems.

14.Languageiswrittenbecausewritingistheprimarymediumforalllanguages.

15.Wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,whichmeansthedetailsofany

languagesystemcanbegeneticallytransmitted.

16.Onlyhumanbeingsareabletocommunicate.

17.F.deSaussure,whomadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleintheearly20thcentury,

wasaFrenchlinguist.

18.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare'stimeisanexampleofthe

diachronicstudyoflanguage.

19.Speechandwritingcameintobeingatmuchthesametimeinhumanhistory.

20.Allthelanguagesintheworldtodayhavebothspokenandwrittenforms.

III.Fillintheblanks.

21.Language,broadlyspeaking,isameansofcommunication.

22.Inanylanguagewordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbecombined

intoinnumerablesentencesbasedonlimitedrules.Thisfeatureisusuallytermed.

23.Languagehasmanyfunctions.Wecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.Thisfunctionis

24.Theorythatprimitivemanmadeinvoluntaryvocalnoiseswhileperformingheavyworkhas

beencalledthetheory.

25.Linguisticsisthestudyoflanguage.

26.Modernlinguisticsisinthesensethatthelinguisttriestodiscoverwhatlanguage

isratherthanlaydownsomerulesforpeopletoobserve.

27.Onegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofoverwriting.

28.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisastudy.

29.Saussureputforwardtwoimportantconcepts.referstotheabstractlinguistic

systemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.

30.LinguisticpotentialissimilartoSaussure\langueandChomsky's.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.

31.Designfeature

32.Displacement

33.Competence

34.Synchroniclinguistics

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.

35.Whydopeopletakedualityasoneoftheimportantdesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Can

youtelluswhatlanguagewillbeifithasnosuchdesignfeature?

36.Whyisitdifficulttodefinelanguage?

VI.Analyzethefollowingsituation.

37.Howcanalinguistmakehisanalysisscientific?

Key:

(Inthereferencekeys,Iwon'tgiveexamplesorfurtheranalysis.Thatseemstoomuchworkfor

me.Therefore,thiskeyisonlyforreference.Inordertoanswerthiskindofquestion,youneed

moreexamples.Soyoushouldreadthetextbookcarefully.]

I.

1〜5BACCC6〜10BACAC

II.

11-15FFTFF16〜20FFFFF

III.

21.verbal22.productivity/creativity

23.metalingualfunction24.yo-he-ho

25.scientific26.descriptive

27.speech28.diachroniclinguistic

29.langue30.competence

IV.

Designfeature:Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifference

betweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.

32.

Displacement:Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsand

concepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.

33.

Competence:Itisanessentialpartofperformance.Itisthespeaker'sknowledgeofhisorher

language;thatis,ofitssoundstructure,itswords,anditsgrammaticalrules.Competenceis,ina

way,anencyclopediaoflanguage.Moreover,theknowledgeinvolvedincompetenceisgenerally

unconscious.Atransformational-generativegrammarisamodelofcompetence.

34.

Synchroniclinguistics:Itreferstothestudyofalanguageatagivenpointintime.Thetime

studiedmaybeeitherthepresentoraparticularpointinthepast;synchronicanalysescanalsobe

madeofdeadlanguages,suchasLatin.Synchroniclinguisticsiscontrastedwithdiachronic

linguistics,thestudyofalanguageoveraperiodoftime.

35.

Dualitymakesourlanguageproductive.Alargenumberofdifferentunitscanbeformedoutofa

smallnumberofelements-forinstance,tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds,

around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbe

astronomicalnumberofpossiblesentencesandphrases,whichinturncancombinetoform

unlimitednumberoftexts.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothavethisdesignfeatureof

humanlanguage.

Iflanguagehasnosuchdesignfeature,thenitwillbelikeanimalcommunicationalsystemwhich

willbehighlylimited.Itcannotproduceaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations,e.g.words,

whicharedistinctinmeaning.

36.

Itisdifficulttodefinelanguage,asitissuchageneraltermthatcoverstoomanythings.Thus,

definitionsforitallhavetheirownspecialemphasis,andarenottotallyfreefromlimitations.

VI.

37.

Itshouldbeguidedbythefourprinciplesofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency,economyand

objectivityandfollowthescientificprocedure:formhypothesis-collectdata-checkagainstthe

observablefacts-cometoaconclusion.

Chapter2SpeechSounds

I.Choosethebestanswer.

1.Pitchvariationisknownaswhenitspatternsareimposedonsentences.

A.intonationB.toneC.pronunciationD.voice

2.Conventionallyaisputinslashes(//).

A.allophoneB.phoneC.phonemeD.morpheme

3.Anaspiratedp,anunaspiratedpandanunreleasedpareofthepphoneme.

A.analoguesB.tagmemesC.morphemesD.Allophones

4.Theopeningbetweenthevocalcordsissometimesreferredtoas.

A.glottisB.vocalcavityC.pharynxD.uvula

5.Thediphthongsthataremadewithamovementofthetonguetowardsthecenterareknownas

_______diphthongs.

A.wideB.closingC.narrowD.centering

6.Aphonemeisagroupofsimilarsoundscalled.

A.minimalpairsB.allomorphsC.phonesD.allophones

7.Whichbranchofphoneticsconcernstheproductionofspeechsounds?

A.AcousticphoneticsB.Articulatoryphonetics

C.AuditoryphoneticsD.Noneoftheabove

8.Whichoneisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtoplacesofarticulation?

A.[n]B.[m]C.[b]D.[p]

9.Whichvowelisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtothecharacteristicsofvowels?

A.[i:]B.[u]C.[e]D.[i]

10.Whatkindofsoundscanwemakewhenthevocalcordsarevibrating?

A.VoicelessB.VoicedC.GlottalstopD.Consonant

II.Decidewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse.

11.Suprasegmentalphonologyreferstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslargerthan

thesegment-phoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.

12.Theairstreamprovidedbythelungshastoundergoanumberofmodificationtoacquirethe

qualityofaspeechsound.

13.Twosoundsareinfreevariationwhentheyoccurinthesameenvironmentanddonot

contrast,namely,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword,but

merelyadifferentpronunciation.

14.[p]isavoicedbilabialstop.

15.Acousticphoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.

16.Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutnotallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.

17.Whenpurevowelsormonophthongsarepronounced,novowelglidestakeplace.

18.Accordingtothelengthortensenessofthepronunciation,vowelscanbedividedintotensevs.

laxorlongvs.short.

19.ReceivedPronunciationisthepronunciationacceptedbymostpeople.

20.Themaximalonsetprinciplestatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,

itisputintothecodaratherthantheonset.

III.Fillintheblanks.

21.Consonantsoundscanbeeitheror,whileallvowelsoundsare

22.Consonantsoundscanalsobemadewhentwoorgansofspeechinthemoutharebrought

closetogethersothattheairispushedoutbetweenthem,causing.

23.Thequalitiesofvowelsdependuponthepositionoftheandthelips.

24.Oneelementinthedescriptionofvowelsisthepartofthetonguewhichisatthehighestpoint

inthemouth.Asecondelementisthetowhichthatpartofthetongueisraised.

25.Consonantsdifferfromvowelsinthatthelatterareproducedwithout.

26.Inphonologicalanalysisthewordsfail/veilaredistinguishablesimplybecauseofthetwo

phonemes/f7-/v/.Thisisanexampleforillustrating.

27.InEnglishthereareanumberof,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowel

positiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.

28.referstothephenomenonofsoundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheir

neighbors.

29.isthesmallestlinguisticunit.

30.Speechtakesplacewhentheorgansofspeechmovetoproducepatternsofsound.These

movementshaveaneffectonthecomingfromthelungs.

IV.Explainthefollowingterms,usingexamples.

31.Soundassimilation

32.Suprasegmentalfeature

33.Complementarydistribution

34.Distinctivefeatures

V.Answerthefollowingquestions.

35.Whatisacousticphonetics?

36.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenvoicedsoundsandvoicelesssoundsintermsofarticulation?

VI.Analyzethefollowingsituation.

37.Writethesymbolthatcorrespondstoeachofthefollowingphoneticdescriptions;thengivean

Englishwordthatcontainsthissound.Example:voicedalveolarstop[d]dog.

(1)voicelessbilabialunaspiratedstop

(2)lowfrontvowel

(3)lateralliquid

(4)velarnasal

(5)voicedinterdentalfricative

答案L

1~5ACDAA6-10DBABB

IL

11-15TTTFF16~20TTTFF

III.

21.voiced,voiceless,voiced22.friction

23.tongue24.height

25.obstruction26.minimalpairs

27.diphthongs28.Co-articulation

29.Phonemes30.airstream

IV.

31.Soundassimilation:Speechsoundsseldomoccurinisolation.Inconnectedspeech,under

theinfluenceoftheirneighbors,arereplacedbyothersounds.Sometimestwo

neighboringsoundsinfluenceeachotherandarereplacedbyathirdsoundwhichis

differentfrombothoriginalsounds.Thisprocessiscalledsoundassimilation.

32.Suprasegmentalfeature:Thephoneticfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments

arecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsas

thesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalonesincludesstress,

intonation,andtone.

33.Complementarydistribution:Thedifferentallophonesofthesamephonemeneveroccur

inthesamephoneticcontext.Whentwoormoreallophonesofonephonemeneveroccur

inthesamelinguisticenvironmenttheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

34.Distinctivefeatures:Itreferstothefeaturesthatcandistinguishonephonemefrom

another.Ifwecangroupthephonemesintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandthe

otherwithout,thisfeatureiscalledadistinctivefeature.

V.

35.

Acousticphoneticsdealswiththetransmissionofspeechsoundsthroughtheair.Whena

speechsoundisproduceditcausesminorairdisturbances(soundwaves).Various

instrumentsareusedtomeasurethecharacteristicsofthesesoundwaves.

36.

Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthem

unimpeded.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiceless;consonants[p,s,t]

areproducedinthisway.Butwhenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthe

lungsrepeatedlypushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.

Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiced,[b,z,djarevoicedconsonants.

VI.37.Omit.

Chapter3Lexicon

I.Choosethebestanswer.

1.Nouns,verbsandadjectivescanbeclassifiedas.

A.lexicalwordsB.grammaticalwords

C.functionwordsD.formwords

2.Morphemesthatrepresenttense,number,genderandcasearecalledmorpheme.

A.inflectionalB.freeC.boundD.derivational

3.Therearemorphemesintheworddenationalization.

A.threeB.fourC.fiveD.six

4.InEnglish-iseand-tionarecalled.

A.prefixesB.s