语言学名词解释

Languageisasystemofvocal(andwritten)symbolswithmeaningattachedthatisusedforhumancommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings.Functionsoflanguage:Informativefunction:2)Interpersonalfunction:3)Performative(行为)function:4)Emotivefunction:5)Phatic(寒暄)function:6)Recreationalfunction:7)Metalingualfunction(asagainstthefunctionofreferringtosth.intherealorimaginedworld):Microlinguistics:Mainbranchesoflinguistics:(1)Phonetics;(2)Phonology;(3)Morphology/Lexicology;(4)Syntax;(5)Semantics;(6)Pragmatics2)Interdisciplinary跨学科的fieldsoflinguistics(macrolinguistics):(1)Psycholinguistics:Studyoflanguagefromtheperspectiveofpsychology.(2)Sociolinguistics:Studyoflanguagefromtheperspectiveofsociology.(3)Anthropologicallinguistics:Studyoflanguagefromtheperspectiveofanthropology.(4)Computationallinguistics:Studyoftheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.Thephonemeisanabstractconceptandthesmallestphonologicalunitthatreferstoafamilyofsoundswhicharesimilarinpronunciationandareincomplementarydistribution.ThevariousmembersofthephonemearecalleditsallophonesAssimilationisaphonologicalprocessinwhichonesoundisaffectedbyanotherandbecomessimilartoit,ortwosoundsaffecteachotherandbecomealikeEpenthesisisaphonologicalprocessinwhichanextrasound(consonantorvowel)isinsertedoraddedbetweentwosoundsinawordorbetweentwowords.Itistoeasethepronunciationoftransition过渡betweenthetwosoundsorwordsAsyllableisagroupofphonemesoronephonemewhichisarelativelyindependentunitofpronunciationandisthebuildingblocksofwords.Asyllableisopenifitendsinavowel,closedifitendsinaconsonantStressisarelativetermwhichreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingawordwithmorethanonesyllable.Theremaybeaprimarystressandasecondaryone,particularlywhenthewordcontainsthreeormoresyllables语调Intonationreferstothefalland/orriseofthevoiceinhumanspeech.Eachintonationpatternisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsTone:Therising,falling,level,orfalling-risinginflection转调ofthevoiceinpronouncingwordswhich,insomelanguages,servesaphonemicpurposethatdistinguishesmeaningsofwordsThewordisalinguisticunitabovethemorphemeandbelowthephrase.Itistheminimumfreeformofalanguagethathasthemoststableinternalstructure.Morpheme:Theminimummeaningfulgrammaticalunitoflanguagewhichisnotfurtherdivisiblewithoutchangingitsmeaning.Boundmorpheme:Amorphemethatcannotstandaloneasawordandhastocombinewithanothermorphemeorothermorphemesintoaword.1.Syntacticrelations:1)Syntagmatic/horizontal/positionalrelation(p.73):Horizontalrelationbetweenwords/componentsinasentence.2)Paradigmatic/verticalrelation/relationofsubstitutability(p.74):Therelationbetweenwordsorphrasesofthesametypethataresubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure(meaningnotconsidered).Endocentricconstruction内向型(p.78):Linguisticconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofthecentralorheadwordoftheconstruction.e.g.一般名词动词形容词属于内向型结构Exocentricconstruction(p.79):Linguisticconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttothatofanyoftheconstituentsoftheconstruction.Andthereisnoheadwordinit.Senseandreference(theReferentialTheory(指称理论)):(1)Sense:Theinherentmeaningofalinguisticform(soundorwrittensymbol)whichisanabstractcollectionofallthemajorfeaturesofwhattheformrefersto.(2)Reference:Therelationbetweenalinguisticunitanda(non-linguistic)entityitrefersto(intherealworld).Sense(意义):Abstractproperties特性ofanentity(whenyouthinkoftheentity);Reference(所指):(Theprocessofreferringto)theconcreteentitieshaving(allorsomeof)theseproperties(whenyourefertotheentity).Synonymy(同义关系):Similarityofmeaningbetweenlinguisticunits.Antonymy(反义关系):Oppositenessofmeaningbetweenlinguisticunits,usuallyclassifiedintothreesub-types:gradableantonymy,complementaryantonymy,andconverseantonymy.Conceptofpsycholinguistics:Studyofthementalfactorsthataffecttheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionoflanguage.Processoflanguageproduction:Conceptualization–formulation(inthemind)–articulation发音/writing–self-regulation/correctutteranceorwrittenexpressionConceptofcognitivelinguistics:Theschooloflinguisticsthataimsatunderstandinglanguagecreation,learning,andusageasbestexplainedbyreferencetohumancognitioningeneralConstrualreferstothewayspeoplestructuretheirexperiencesthroughlanguage;wecaninterpretthesewaysthroughconstrualoperations(Cf.130).Fourbroadcognitiveabilitiesthatplayanactivepartintheconstructionofconstruals:Attention/Salience(凸显),Judgment/Comparison,Perspective/Situatedness(位置),andConstitution/Gestalt(完型)Categorization范畴化:ItreferstotheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentkindsbasedontheircommonalitiesanddifferencesThreelevelsincategories:(1)Basiclevel(基础范畴)(2)Superordinatelevel(上位范畴):Subordinatelevel(下属范畴)Imageschemas(意象图式):Arecurring,dynamicpre-conceptualpatternoftheactivitiesinthemindthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperienceRelationbetweenlanguageandculture:1)Languageisanimportantpartofculture:(1)Therehasbeennoculturewithoutlanguage:(2)Languageisusedeverydayandbyallpeople;(3)Languagehasagreatimpactonthedevelopmentofculture:Recordinghistory;Transmittingculturefromgenerationtogeneration;Disseminatingculture;Conceptualizingandregulatingpeople’sideasandthoughts;Formingandstrengtheningthecohesionofanation:Cultureisreflectedinlanguageinallaspects:words,idiomsandproverbs,grammar,normstouselanguage,Languagemaynotbedecisiveinshapingapeople’sthinkingpatternsorculturalpatterns,butithasagreatimpactonitTheSPEAKINGmodelofcommunicativecontext(D.H.Hymes,1974)1)S:(speech)situation/settingandscene场景:Physicalsetting/psychologicalsceneofthespeechact;2)P:participant参与者:Speaker/hearer,addressor/addresseeoraudienceofthespeechact;3)E:ends目的等:Purposes,goals,etc.ofthespeechact;4)A:actsequence相关形式与顺序:Messageform,structureandcontentofthespeechact(orderofwords,etc.);5)K:Key语气:Tone,mannerorspiritexpressedinthespeechact;6)I:instrumentalities语式:Channel(e.g.verbal/nonverbal,spoken/written);7)N:norms交际准则:Socialrulesgoverningtheeventandtheparticipants'actionsandreaction;8)G:genre体裁:Recognisablestylisticstructureandmode,e.g.conversation,lecture.Majorproblemsininterculturalcommunication:1)Unfamiliaritywiththeforeignlanguage,includingpronunciationandintonation,vocabulary,grammarandstructure,anddiscourse论述organization;2)Unfamiliaritywiththepragmaticandcommunicativerulesinspiteofmasteryofthebasiclanguageskillsoftheforeignlanguage:3)Misuseormisunderstandingofnon-verbalbehaviorsoftheforeignculture;4)Notknowingornotobservingthetraditionsandcustomsoftheforeignculture；5)Ethnocentrism民族优越感;6)Stereotypes陈规andmisevaluationofpeopleorthingsoftheforeignculture;7)PrejudiceanddiscriminationoftheforeigncultureSpeechacttheory:AtheoryofpragmaticsthatwasadvancedbyJ.L.AustinanddevelopedbyJ.R.Searleandotherscholars.Itisaimedatthestudyoflanguageuse,moreexactly,howlanguageisusedtodothingsorcauseaction.Speechactsinvolvingtheprocessofanutterance:(1)Thelocutionaryact发话行为:Theactofpronouncingtheutterance/sayingthewords.(2)Theillocutionaryact施事行为:Theactthatindicatesthepurposeorintensionofthespeaker.(3)Theperlocutionaryact言后行为:Theactorresult/consequenceincludingpsychologicalresponse(s)thatis/arecausedbytheutterance(onthepartofthespeakerorthehearer).Direct(secondary)speechact:Aspeechactthatisexpressedbysurfacemeaningoftheutteranceandcanbeunderstoodwithoutinference推理.Indirect(primary)speechact:Aspeechactthatisnotseendirectlybutisimpliedbytheutteranceandcannotbeunderstoodwithoutinference.Typesofillocutionaryact:(1)Representatives/assertives阐述行为(proposition):statementoftruthandideas/opinions,providinginformation,confirmationofthings,etc.(2)Directives指令行为:order,request,requirement,question,suggestion,instruction,invitation.(3)Commissives承诺行为:promise,guarantee,offer,refusal,threat,etc.(4)Expressives表情行为:apologizing,boasting,thanking,congratulation,greeting,sayinggood-bye,etc.(5)Declarations宣称行为:declaring,naming,appointing,nominating,etc.Conventionalimplicature规约性会话含义:Speechactsthatarecommonlyusedandconveyaconventionalimplicature.English:Oops!(Expressive–surprise(andapology))Unconventionalimplicature非规约性含义:Speechactsthatareexpressedinagivencontextandconveyanimplicaturewhichrequiressomeeffortofinferencetounderstand.Machinetranslation:Theuseofmachine,usuallycomputersplustheinternet,totranslatetextsfromonenaturallanguagetoanother.Qualityofmachinetranslation:Generallynotsatisfactory,butcomparatively,itworksbetterforwrittenthanforspokenlanguage,andforspecificdomainsthanforgeneralpurposes.Corpuslinguistics语料库语言学:Linguisticstudiesbymakinguseofinformationdrawnfromalargecollectionofwrittenorspeechlanguagedatawhichiscalled“corpus”.Functionofalinguisticcorpus:(1)Itcanhelpdecidehowwidelyandfrequentlyanewlycreatedorborrowedwordisused,thusknowingwhetheritshouldbeputintoadictionary;(2)Itcanproviderawmaterialsforthestudyofalanguageatvariouslevels;(3)Itcanhelpcomparelinguisticelements/unitsoftwoormorelanguages.(4)Itcanhelpfinderrorsorinappropriateusagesinlanguageapplication;(5)Itcanhelpdecidetheimportanceofanissueoreventinpublicopinionduringacertainperiodoftime.Thei+1principle(p.253).：thelanguagethatlearnersareexposedtoshouldbejustfarenoughbeyondtheircurrentcompetencesothattheycanunderstandmostofitbutstillbechallengedtomakeprogress.Inputshouldneitherbesofarbeyondtheirreachthattheyareoverwhelmed,norsoclosetotheircurrentstagethattheyarenotchallengedatall.Interlanguage中介语inforeignlanguagelearning:Aintermediarylanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.Itcontainsnon-standardformsofexpressions.Natureofinterlanguage:Anaturaltransitionbetweenone’smothertongueandtheforeignlanguage.Itobservesthegeneralrulesofthetargetlanguageandfunctionseffectivelyincommunication.Contrastiveanalysis:Comparisonofthefirst/nativeandthesecond/foreignlanguagesatvariouslevelsforthepurposeoflearningand/orteachingthesecond/targetlanguagemoreefficientlyMistakes:Unsystematiclapsesandslipsinspeakingorwritingthes