Chinese-philosophy-论中国哲学思想-英文版

Chinesephilosophy\o"YinYang"YinYangsymbolandBaguapavedinaclearingoutsideofNanningCity,\o"Guangxi"Guangxiprovince,\o"China"China.Chinesephilosophyis\o"Philosophy"philosophywritteninthe\o"China"Chinese\o"Chineseculture"traditionofthought.ThemajorityofChinesephilosophyoriginatesinthe\o"SpringandAutumn"SpringandAutumnand\o"WarringStatesPeriod"WarringStatesera,duringaperiodknownasthe"\o"HundredSchoolsofThought"HundredSchoolsofThought",[1]whichwascharacterizedbysignificantintellectualandculturaldevelopments.[1]ItwasduringthiserathatthemajorphilosophiesofChina,\o"Confucianism"Confucianism,\o"Mohism"Mohism,\o"Legalism"Legalism,and\o"Taoism"Taoism,arose,alongwithphilosophiesthatlaterfellintoobscurity,like\o"Agriculturalism"Agriculturalism,\o"SchoolofNaturalists"ChineseNaturalism,andthe\o"SchoolofNames"Logicians.AlthoughmuchofChinesephilosophybeginsintheWarringStatesperiod,elementsofChinesephilosophyhaveexistedforseveralthousandyears;somecanbefoundinthe\o"IChing"YiJing(theBookofChanges),anancientcompendiumof\o"Divination"divination,whichusesasystemof64\o"Hexagrams"hexagramstoguideaction.[\o"Wikipedia:Citationneeded"citationneeded]Thissystemisattributedto\o"KingWenofZhou"KingWenofZhou(1099–1050BCE)andtheworkreflectsthecharacteristicconceptsandapproachesofChinesephilosophy.TheBookofChangesevolvedinstagesoverthenexteightcenturies,butthefirstrecordedreferenceisin672BCE.[2]The\o"TaoTeChing"DaoDeJing(Dàodéjīng,in\o"Pinyin"pinyinromanisation)of\o"Laozi"LaoTzu(Lǎozǐ)[3]andthe\o"Analects"Analectsof\o"Confucius"Confucius(Kǒngfūzǐ;sometimescalledMasterKong)[4]bothappearedaroundthe6thcenturyBCE,slightlyaheadofearly\o"Buddhistphilosophy"BuddhistphilosophyinNorthernIndiaandslightlyafter\o"Pre-Socraticphilosophy"pre-Socraticphilosophyin\o"AncientGreece"AncientGreece.\o"Confucianism"ConfucianismrepresentsthecollectedteachingsoftheChinesesage\o"Confucius"Confucius,wholivedfrom551to479BCE.Hisphilosophyconcernsthefieldsofethicsandpolitics,emphasizingpersonalandgovernmentalmorality,correctnessofsocialrelationships,justice,traditionalism,andsincerity.TheAnalectsstresstheimportanceofritual,butalsotheimportanceof'ren',whichlooselytranslatesas'human-heartedness,[5]Confucianism,alongwith\o"Legalism(Chinesephilosophy)"Legalism,isresponsibleforcreatingtheworld’sfirst\o"Meritocracy"meritocracy,whichholdsthatone'sstatusshouldbedeterminedbyabilityinsteadof\o"Ancestry"ancestry,\o"Wealth"wealth,or\o"Friendship"friendship.[4]ConfucianismwasandcontinuestobeamajorinfluenceinChineseculture,thestateof\o"HistoryofChina"Chinaandthesurroundingareasof\o"SoutheastAsia"SoutheastAsia.Throughouthistory,ChinesephilosophyhasbeenmoldedtofittheprevailingschoolsofthoughtandcircumstancesinChina.TheChineseschoolsofphilosophy,exceptduringthe\o"Toburntheclassicsandtoburythescholars"QinDynasty,canbebothcriticalandyetrelativelytolerantofoneanother.Evenwhenoneparticularschoolofthoughtisofficiallyadoptedbytherulingbureaucracy,asinthe\o"HanDynasty"HanDynasty,theremaybenomovetobanorcensorotherschoolsofthought.Despiteandbecauseofthedebatesandcompetition,theygenerallyhavecooperatedandsharedideas,whichtheywouldusuallyincorporatewiththeirown.\o"Neo-Confucianism"Neo-Confucianism,whichappearedinthe\o"SongDynasty"SongDynasty,mergedConfucianideaswithTaoistandLegalistones.DuringtheIndustrialandModernAges,Chinesephilosophyhadalsobegantointegrateconceptsof\o"Westernphilosophy"Westernphilosophy,asstepstowardmodernization.Bythetimeofthe\o"XinhaiRevolution"XinhaiRevolutionin1911,thereweremanycalls,suchasthe\o"MayFourthMovement"MayFourthMovement,tocompletelyabolishtheoldimperialinstitutionsandpracticesofChina.Therehavebeenattemptstoincorporate\o"Democracy"democracy,\o"Republicanism"republicanism,and\o"Industrialism"industrialismintoChinesephilosophy,notablyby\o"SunYat-Sen"SunYat-Sen(Sūnyìxiān,inoneMandarinformofthename)atthebeginningofthe20thcentury.\o"MaoZedong"MaoZedongblended\o"Marxism"Marxismwith\o"Confucianism"Confucianismand\o"Taoism"Taoismandother\o"Communism"communistthoughttocreatewhatissometimesknowntodayas"\o"Maoism"Maoism".[6]Thegovernmentofthe\o"People'sRepublicofChina"People'sRepublicofChinaencourage\o"SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics"SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics.Although,officially,itdoesnotencouragesomeofthephilosophicalpracticesof\o"ImperialeraofChinesehistory"ImperialChina,theinfluencesofpastarestilldeeplyingrainedinthe\o"Chineseculture"Chineseculture.Asin\o"Japan"Japan,philosophyinChinahasbecomeameltingpotofideas.Itacceptsnewconcepts,whileattemptingalsotoaccordoldbeliefstheirdue.DespiteWesterninfluence,modernChinesephilosophyhasreappearedinformssuchasthe\o"NewConfucianism"NewConfucianism.Chinesephilosophystillcarriesprofoundinfluenceamongstthepeopleof\o"EastAsia"EastAsia,andeven\o"SoutheastAsia"SoutheastAsia.BriefhistoryEarlybeliefsEarly\o"ShangDynasty"ShangDynastythoughtwasbaseduponcyclicity.Thisnotionstemsfromwhatthepeopleofthe\o"ShangDynasty"ShangDynastycouldobservearoundthem:dayandnightcycled,theseasonsprogressedagainandagain,andeventhemoonwaxedandwaneduntilitwaxedagain.Thus,thisnotion,whichremainedrelevantthroughout\o"Chinesehistory"Chinesehistory,reflectstheorderofnature.Injuxtaposition,italsomarksafundamentaldistinctionfrom\o"Westernphilosophy"westernphilosophy,inwhichthedominantviewoftimeisalinearprogression.DuringtheShang,\o"Destiny"fatecouldbemanipulatedbygreatdeities,commonlytranslatedasGods.\o"Ancestorworship"Ancestorworshipwaspresentanduniversallyrecognized.Therewasalsohumanandanimalsacrifice.WhentheShangwereoverthrownbythe\o"ZhouDynasty"Zhou,anewpolitical,religiousandphilosophicalconceptwasintroducedcalledthe"\o"MandateofHeaven"MandateofHeaven".ThismandatewassaidtobetakenwhenrulersbecameunworthyoftheirpositionandprovidedashrewdjustificationforZhourule.Duringthisperiod,archaeologicalevidencepointstoanincreaseinliteracyandapartialshiftawayfromthefaithplacedin\o"Shangdi"Shangdi(theSupremeBeingin\o"TraditionalChinesereligion"traditionalChinesereligion),withancestorworshipbecomingcommonplaceandamoreworldlyorientationcomingtothefore.HundredSchoolsofThoughtTheHundredSchoolsofThought(\o"SimplifiedChinesecharacters"simplifiedChinese:诸子百家literally"allphilosophershundredschools")werephilosophersandschoolsthatflourishedfrom770to221BC,aneraofgreatculturalandintellectualexpansionin\o"China"China.[1]Eventhoughthisperiod-knowninitsearlierpartasthe\o"SpringandAutumn"SpringandAutumnperiodandthe\o"WarringStates"WarringStatesperiod(春秋戰國時代/春秋战国时代)-initslatterpartwasfraughtwithchaosandbloodybattles,itisalsoknownastheGoldenAgeof\o"Chinesephilosophy"Chinesephilosophybecauseabroadrangeofthoughtsandideasweredevelopedanddiscussedfreely.ThisphenomenonhasbeencalledtheContentionofaHundredSchoolsofThought(百家爭鳴/百家争鸣;bǎijiāzhēngmíng;pai-chiacheng-ming;"hundredschoolscontend").Thethoughtsandideasdiscussedandrefinedduringthisperiodhaveprofoundlyinfluenced\o"Lifestyle(sociology)"lifestylesand\o"Socialconsciousness"socialconsciousnessuptothepresentdayinEastAsiancountries.The\o"Intellectual"intellectualsocietyofthiserawascharacterizedbyitinerantscholars,whowereoftenemployedbyvariousstaterulersasadvisersonthemethodsof\o"Government"government,\o"War"war,and\o"Diplomacy"diplomacy.Thisperiodendedwiththeriseofthe\o"QinDynasty"QinDynastyandthesubsequent\o"Burningofbooksandburyingofscholars"purgeofdissent.ConfucianismanditsderivativesConfucianism(儒家;Rújiā;Ju-chia;"Schoolofscholars")isthebodyofthoughtthatarguablyhadthemostenduringeffectsonChineselife.Itswrittenlegacyliesinthe\o"ConfucianClassics"ConfucianClassics,whichlaterbecamethefoundationoftraditionalsociety.\o"Confucius"Confucius(551–479BC),orKongzi"MasterKong",lookedbacktotheearlydaysofthe\o"ZhouDynasty(1122BC-256BC)"Zhoudynastyforanidealsocio-politicalorder.Hebelievedthattheonlyeffectivesystemofgovernmentnecessitatedprescribedrelationshipsforeachindividual:"Lettherulerbearulerandthesubjectasubject".Furthermore,hecontendedthatakingmustbevirtuousinordertoruleproperly.ToConfucius,thefunctionsofgovernmentandsocialstratificationwerefactsoflifetobesustainedbyethicalvalues;thushisidealhumanwasthe\o"Junzi"junzi,whichistranslatedas"gentleman"or"superiorperson".\o"Mencius"Mencius(371–289BC),orMengzi,formulatedhisteachingsdirectlyinresponsetoConfucius.TheeffectofthecombinedworkofConfucius,thecodifierandinterpreterofasystemofrelationshipsbasedonethicalbehavior,andMencius,thesynthesizeranddeveloperofappliedConfucianistthought,wastoprovidetraditionalChinesesocietywithacomprehensiveframeworkbywhichtoordervirtuallyeveryaspectoflife.ThereweremanyaccretionstothebodyofConfucianthought,bothimmediatelyandoverthemillennia,fromwithinandwithouttheConfucianschool.InterpretationsadaptedtocontemporarysocietyallowedforflexibilitywithinConfucianism,whilethefundamentalsystemofmodeledbehaviorfromancienttextsformeditsphilosophicalcore.DiametricallyopposedtoMencius,inregardstohumannature(性),wastheinterpretationof\o"Xunzi"Xunzi(c.300–237BC),anotherConfucianfollower.Xunzipreachedthatmanisnotinnatelygood;heassertedthatgoodnessisattainableonlythroughtrainingone'sdesiresandconduct.LegalismTheSchoolofLaworLegalism(法家;Fǎjiā;Fa-chia;"Schooloflaw")doctrinewasformulatedby\o"HanFeizi"HanFeizi(d.233BC)andLiSi(d.208BC),whomaintainedthathumannaturewasincorrigiblyselfish;accordingly,theonlywaytopreservethesocialorderwastoimposedisciplinefromabove,andtoseetoastrictenforcementoflaws.TheLegalistsexaltedthestateaboveall,seekingitsprosperityandmartialprowessoverthewelfareofthecommonpeople.Legalismgreatlyinfluencedthephilosophicalbasisfortheimperialformofgovernment.Duringthe\o"HanDynasty"HanDynasty,themostpracticalelementsofConfucianismandLegalismweretakentoformasortofsynthesis,markingthecreationofanewformofgovernmentthatwouldremainlargelyintactuntilthelate19thcentury.TaoismPhilosophicalTaoismorDaoism(道家;Dàojiā;Tao-chia;"SchooloftheWay")developedintothesecondmostsignificantstreamofChinesethought.Itsformulationisoftenattributedtothelegendarysage\o"Laozi"Laozi("OldMaster"),whoissaidtopredateConfucius,and\o"Zhuangzi"Zhuangzi(369–286BC).ThefocusofTaoismisontheindividualwithinthenaturalrealmratherthantheindividualwithinsociety;accordingly,thegoaloflifeforeachindividualisseekingtoadjustoneselfandadaptingtotherhythmofthenatural(andthesupernatural)world,tofollowtheWay(\o"Tao"tao)oftheuniverse,andtoliveinharmony.InmanywaystheoppositeofrigidConfucianmorality,Taoismwasformanyofitsadherentsacomplementtotheirordereddailylives.AscholarservingasanofficialwouldusuallyfollowConfucianteachings,butatleisureorinretirementmightseekharmonywithnatureasaTaoistrecluse.MohismMohismorMoism(墨家;Mòjiā;Mo-chia;"SchoolofMo")wasdevelopedbyfollowersof\o"Mozi"Mozi(alsoreferredtoasMoDi;470–c.391BC).ThoughtheschooldidnotsurvivethroughtheQinDynasty,MohismwasseenasamajorrivalofConfucianismintheperiodoftheHundredSchoolsofThought.Itsphilosophyrestedontheideaofuniversallove:Mozibelievedthat"everyoneisequalbeforeheaven",andthatpeopleshouldseektoimitateheavenbyengaginginthepracticeofcollectivelove.Hisepistemologycanberegardedasprimitivematerialist\o"Empiricism"empiricism;hebelievedthathumancognitionoughttobebasedonone'sperceptions–one'ssensoryexperiences,suchassightandhearing–insteadofimaginationorinternallogic,elementsfoundedonthehumancapacityforabstraction.Moziadvocatedfrugality,condemningtheConfucianemphasisonritualandmusic,whichhedenouncedasextravagant.Heregardedoffensivewarfareaswastefulandadvocatedpacifismoratthemost,defensivefortification.Theachievementofsocialgoals,accordingtoMozi,necessitatedtheunityofthoughtandaction.Hispoliticalphilosophybearsaresemblancetodivine-rulemonarchy:thepopulationoughtalwaystoobeyitsleaders,asitsleadersoughtalwaystofollowthewillofheaven.Mohismmightbearguedtohaveelementsof\o"Meritocracy"meritocracy:Mozicontendedthatrulersshouldappointofficialsbyvirtueoftheirabilityinsteadoftheirfamilyconnections.AlthoughpopularfaithinMohismhaddeclinedbytheendoftheQinDynasty,itsviewsaresaidtobestronglyechoedinLegalistthought.SchoolofYin-yangTheSchoolofNaturalistsorYin-yang(陰陽家/阴阳家;Yīnyángjiā;Yin-yang-chia;"SchoolofYin-Yang")wasaWarringStateseraphilosophythatsynthesizedtheconceptsof\o"Yin-yang"yin-yangandthe\o"Fiveelements(Chinesephilosophy)"FiveElements;\o"ZouYan"ZouYanisconsideredthefounderofthisschool.[2]Histheoryattemptedtoexplaintheuniverseintermsofbasicforcesinnature:thecomplementaryagentsofyin(dark,cold,female,negative)andyang(light,hot,male,positive)andtheFiveElementsorFivePhases(water,fire,wood,metal,andearth).Initsearlydays,thistheorywasmoststronglyassociatedwiththestatesof\o"Yan(state)"Yanand\o"Qi(state)"Qi.Inlaterperiods,theseepistemologicaltheoriescametoholdsignificanceinbothphilosophyandpopularbelief.ThisschoolwasabsorbedintoTaoism'salchemicandmagicaldimensionsaswellasintotheChinesemedicalframework.Theearliestsurvivingrecordingsofthisareinthe\o"MawangduiSilkTexts"MaWangDuitextsand\o"HuangDiNeiJing"HuangDiNeiJing.LogiciansTheSchoolofNamesorLogicians(名家;Míngjiā;Ming-chia;"Schoolofnames")grewoutofMohism,withaphilosophythatfocusedon\o"Definition"definitionand\o"Logic"logic.ItissaidtohaveparallelswiththatoftheAncientGreek\o"Sophists"sophistsor\o"Dialectician"dialecticians.ThemostnotableLogicianwas\o"GongsunLongzi"GongsunLongzi.\o"SchoolofDiplomacy"SchoolofDiplomacyTheSchoolofDiplomacyorSchoolofVerticalandHorizontal[Alliances](縱橫家/纵横家;Zonghengjia)specializedindiplomaticpolitics;\o"ZhangYi(strategist)"ZhangYiand\o"SuQin"SuQinwererepresentativethinkers.Thisschoolfocusedonpracticalmattersinsteadofanymoralprinciple,soitstressedpoliticalanddiplomatictactics,anddebateandlobbyingskill.Scholarsfromthisschoolweregoodorators,debatersandtacticians.MiscellaneousSchoolTheMiscellaneousSchool(雜家/杂家;Zajia)integratedteachingsfromdifferentschools;forinstance,\o"LüBuwei"LüBuweifoundscholarsfromdifferentschoolstowriteabookcalledLüshiChunqiu(呂氏春秋)cooperatively.Thisschooltriedtointegratethemeritsofvariousschoolsandavoidtheirperceivedflaws.TheSchoolof"Minor-talks"(小說家/小说家;Xiaoshuojia)wasnotauniqueschoolofthought.Indeed,allthethoughtswhichwerediscussedbyandoriginatedfromnon-famouspeopleonthestreetwereincludedinthisschool.Atthattime,thereweresomegovernmentofficialsresponsibleforcollectingideasfromnon-famouspeopleonthestreetandreporttotheirsenior.Thesethoughtsformedtheoriginofthisschool.ThisalsoexplainsitsChinesename,whichliterallymeans"schoolofminor-talks".AnothergroupistheSchooloftheMilitary(兵家;Bingjia)thatstudiedwarfareandstrategy;\o"Sunzi"Sunziand\o"SunBin"SunBinwereinfluentialleaders.However,thisschoolwasnotoneofthe"TenSchools"definedbyHanshu.AgriculturalistsAgriculturalism(農家/农家;Nongjia)wasanearly\o"Agrarianism"agrariansocialandpoliticalphilosophythatadvocatedpeasant\o"Utopian"utopian\o"Communalism"communalismand\o"Egalitarianism"egalitarianism.[3]Thephilosophyisfoundedonthenotionthathumansocietyoriginateswiththedevelopmentof\o"Agriculture"agriculture,andsocietiesarebasedupon"people'snaturalprospensitytofarm."[4]TheAgriculturalistsbelievedthattheidealgovernment,modeledafterthesemi-mythicalgovernanceof\o"Shennong"Shennong,isledbyabenevolentking,onewhoworksalongsidethepeopleintillingthefields.TheAgriculturalistkingisnotpaidbythegovernmentthroughitstreasuries;hislivelihoodisderivedfromtheprofitsheearnsworkinginthefields,nothisleadership.[5]UnliketheConfucians,theAgriculturalistsdidnotbelieveinthe\o"Divisionoflabour"divisionoflabour,arguinginsteadthattheeconomicpoliciesofacountryneedtobebaseduponanegalitarian\o"Selfsufficiency"selfsufficiency.TheAgriculturalistssupportedthe\o"Pricefixing"fixingofprices,inwhichallsimilargoods,regardlessofdifferencesinqualityanddemand,aresetattheexactsame,unchangingprice.[5]Forexample,MenciusoncecriticizeditschiefproponentXuXing(許行)foradvocatingthatrulersshouldworkinthefieldswiththeirsubjects.OneofXu'sstudentsisquotedashavingcriticizedthedukeof\o"Teng(state)"TenginaconversationwithMenciusbysaying:‘Aworthyrulerfeedshimselfbyploughingsidebysidewiththepeople,andruleswhilecookinghisownmeals.NowTengonthecontrarypossessesgranariesandtreasuries,sotherulerissupportinghimselfbyoppressingthepeople’.HistoryandoriginsTheYiWenZhiofthe\o"BookofHan"BookofHanclaimsthattheofficialsworkingforthegovernmentduringtheearlyZhouDynastylosttheirpositionwhentheauthorityoftheZhourulersbegantobreakdownintheEasternZhouperiod.Inthisway,theofficialsspreadalloverthecountryandstartedtoteachtheirownfieldofknowledgeasprivateteachers.Inthiswaytheschoolsofphilosophywereborn.Inparticular,theSchoolofScholars(i.e.theConfucianSchool)wasbornfromtheofficialsoftheMinistryofEducation;theTaoistscamefromthehistorians;theYinYangSchoolwasbornfromtheastronomers;theLegalistSchoolfromtheMinistryofJustice;theSchoolofNamesfromtheMinistryofRituals;theMohistSchoolfromtheGuardiansoftheTemple;theSchoolofDiplomacyfromtheMinistryofEmbassies;theSchoolofMiscellaneousfromthegovernmentcounselors;theSchoolofAgriculturefromtheMinistryoftheSoilandWheat;theSchoolofMinorTalksfromtheminorofficials.Althoughthedetailsareunclear,the\o"Burningofbooksandburyingofscholars"BurningofbooksandburyingofscholarsduringtheQinwastheendoftheperiodofopendiscussion.ItshouldbestressedthatonlytheRu,orConfuciansandtheMohistswereactualorganizedschoolsofteachersanddisciplesduringthisperiod.Alltheotherschoolswereinventedlatertodescribegroupsoftextsthatexpressedsimilarideas.Therewasneveranorganizedgroupofpeopledescribingthemselvesas"Legalists,"forexample,andtheterm"Daoist"wasonlycoinedintheEasternHan.ImperialeraTheshortfounder\o"QinDynasty"QinDynasty,whereLegalismwastheofficialphilosophy,\o"Toburntheclassicsandtoburythescholars"quashedMohistandConfucianistschools.Legalismremainedinfluentialuntiltheemperorsofthe\o"HanDynasty"HanDynastyadoptedDaoismandlaterConfucianismasofficialdoctrine.TheselattertwobecamethedeterminingforcesofChinesethoughtuntilthe20thcentury,withtheintroduction\o"Buddhistphilosophy"Buddhistphilosophy(mostlyduring\o"TangDynasty"TangDynasty)negotiatedlargelythroughperceivedsimilaritieswithDaoism.\o"Neo-Confucianism"Neo-ConfucianismwasarevivedversionofoldConfucianprinciplesthatappearedaroundthe\o"SongDynasty"SongDynasty,withBuddhist,Taoist,andLegalistfeatures.Itwaslaterpopularizedduringthereignofthe\o"MingDynasty"MingDynasty.TherespectiveinfluencesofDaoismandConfucianismareoftendescribedthisway:"ChineseareConfucianistduringtheday,whiletheyareDaoistsatnight".Moreover,manyChinese\o"Mandarin(bureaucrat)"mandarinsweregovernmentofficialsinthedailylifeandpoets(orpainters)intheirsparetime.ModerneraDuringtheIndustrialandModernAges,ChinesephilosophyhadalsobegantointegrateconceptsofWesternphilosophy,asstepstowardmodernization.Bythetimeofthe\o"XinhaiRevolution"XinhaiRevolutionin1911,thereweremanycalls,suchasthe\o"MayFourthMovement"MayFourthMovement,tocompletelyabolishtheoldimperialinstitutionsandpracticesofChina.Therehavebeenattemptstoincorporate\o"Democracy"democracy,\o"Republicanism"republicanism,and\o"Industrialism"industrialismintoChinesephilosophy,notablyby\o"SunYat-Sen"SunYat-Sen(Sūnyìxiān,inoneMandarinformofthename)atthebeginningofthe20thcentury.MaoZedong(Máozédōng)added\o"Marxism"Marxism,\o"Stalinism"Stalinism,andothercommunistthought.Whenthe\o"CommunistPartyofChina"CommunistPartyofChina\o"ChineseCivilWar"tookoverpower,previousschoolsofthought,exceptingnotably\o"Legalism(Chinesephilosophy)"Legalism,weredenouncedasbackward,andlaterevenpurgedduringthe\o"CulturalRevolution"CulturalRevolution.TheirinfluenceonChinesethought,however,remains.Thecurrentgovernmentofthe\o"People'sRepublicofChina"People'sRepublicofChinaistryingtoencourageaformof\o"SocialismwithChinesecharacteristics"marketsocialism.SincetheradicalmovementoftheCulturalRevolution,theChinesegovernmenthasbecomemuchmoretolerantwiththepracticeoftraditionalbeliefs.The\o"1978ConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofChina"1978ConstitutionofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaguarantees"freedomofreligion"withanumberofrestrictions.Asin\o"Japan"Japan,philosophyinChinahasbecomeameltingpotofideas.Itacceptsnewconcepts,whileattemptingalsotoaccordoldbeliefstheirdue.MainSchoolsofThoughtConfucianismKongFuzi(\o"LatinLanguage"Latin:\o"Confucius"Confucius)Confucianismisaphilosophicalschooldevelopedfromtheteachingsofthesage\o"Confucius"Confucius(Kongzi孔子,551

–479\o"CommonEra"BCE),collectedinthe\o"AnalectsofConfucius"AnalectsofConfucius.Itisasystemof\o"Morality"moral,\o"Socialphilosophy"social,\o"Politics"political,and\o"Religion"religiousthoughtthathashadtremendousinfluenceonChinesehistory,thought,andculturedowntothe21stcentury.SomeWesternershaveconsideredittohavebeenthe"\o"Statereligion"statereligion"of\o"ImperialeraofChinesehistory(pagedoesnotexist)"imperialChina.ItsinfluencealsospreadtoKoreaandJapan.ThemajorConfucianconceptsincluderén(humanityorhumaneness),zhèngmíng(rectificationofnames;e.g.arulerwhorulesunjustlyisnolongerarulerandmaybedethroned),zhōng(loyalty),xiào(\o"Filialpiety"filialpiety),andlǐ(ritual).Confuciustaughtbothpositiveandnegativeversionsofthe\o"Ethicofreciprocity"GoldenRule.Theconcepts\o"YinandYang"YinandYangrepresenttwoopposingforcesthatarepermanentlyinconflictwitheachother,leadingtoperpetualcontradictionandchange.TheConfucianideaof"Ridofthetwoends,takethemiddle"isaChineseequivalentof\o"Hegel"Hegel'sideaof"thesis,antithesis,andsynthesis",whichisawayofreconcilingopposites,arrivingatsomemiddlegroundcombiningthebestofboth.Neo-ConfucianismDespiteConfucianismlosingpopularitytoTaoismandBuddhism,\o"Neo-Confucianism"Neo-Confucianismcombinedthoseideasintoamore\o"Metaphysics"metaphysicalframework.Itsconceptsincludeli(principle,akinto\o"Plato"Plato's\o"Theoryofforms"forms),qi(vitalormaterialforce),\o"Taiji"taiji(theGreatUltimate),andxin(mind).TaoismChinese\o"Glaze"glazed\o"Stoneware"stonewarestatueofa\o"Taoist"Taoistdeity,fromthe\o"MingDynasty"MingDynasty,16thcentury.Taoism(Daoism)isaphilosophyandlateralsodevelopedintoareligionbasedonthetextstheTaoTeChing(DàoDéJīng;ascribedto\o"Laozi"Laozi)andthe\o"Zhuangzi"Zhuangzi(partlyascribedto\o"Zhuangzi"Zhuangzi).Thecharacter\o"Tao"Tao道(Dao)literallymeans"path"or"way".HoweverinDaoismitrefersmoreoftentoameta-physicaltermthatdescribesaforcethatencompassestheentireuniversebutwhichcannotbedescribednorfelt.AllmajorChinesephilosophicalschoolshaveinvestigatedthecorrectWaytogoaboutamorallife,butinTaoismittakesonthemostabstractmeanings,leadingthisschooltobenamedafterit.Itadvocatednonaction(wuwei),thestrengthofsoftness,spontaneity,andrelativism.AlthoughitservesasarivaltoConfucianism,aschoolofactivemorality,thisrivalryiscompromisedandgivenperspectivebytheidiom"practiseConfucianismontheoutside,Taoismontheinside."Butitsmainmottois:"Ifonemustrule,ruleyoung"MostofTaoism'sfocusisontheundeniablefactthathumanattemptstomaketheworldbetter,actuallymaketheworldworse.Thereforeitisbettertostriveforharmony.L