语言学知识点概括

语言学知识点概括ChapteroneIntroduction一、定义语言学LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.普通语言学GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.语言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。识别特彳正DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递^arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.PSthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions^ProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.(3)DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.(^DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.(5)CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.语言能力CompetenceCompetenceistheidealuser‘sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.语言运用performancePerformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.语言langueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.言语paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse.12.描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二知识点/doc/4610542151.html,nguageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it‘sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussureF.deSaussure:Langue和parole的区别(2)U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomskyin1950针对Saussure’slangue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall——languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美国语言学家CharlesHockett提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures3.theword‘language7precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language—词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts./doc/4610542151.html,nguageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce.判断题6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics——it‘sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it‘sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld‘slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It‘sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It‘ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics一thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it‘sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanysweet7.whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon'high'writtenlanguage.传统语法是规定性的，研究’高级’书面语。4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?whyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.howisSaussure‘sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky‘s?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?(i)langueisabstract,relativelystable(2)paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）theoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis一correct]|ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950‘s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser‘sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.ChapterTwoPhonology一、定义宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.窄式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it‘sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it‘saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.最小对立对MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.互补分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.语言的语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二知识点statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Phonetic组成Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydevelopedarticulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity-咽腔Oral...-口月空greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal…-鼻空Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[q]9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.10.Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:thefirstphonememustbe/s/thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/wll.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、问答题whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory--studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic--studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulationhowdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么？Phonetics一descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.what‘saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?为thesameposition.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组，音位学家能辨别出它的音位.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序规贝USequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby‘copying‘afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则DeletionruleIt‘saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定义词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.形态学规则MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes?be-?and?en(m)-?后缀SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知■识点InflectionalmorphologyMorphologyDerivationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixessomewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix/doc/4610542151.html,poundfeatures:(l)orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.^Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.(3)semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapter5Semantics一、定义命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.意念论TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.语境论ConceptualismIt‘sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe||situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer||.thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.意义SenseIt‘sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It‘sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it‘sabstractandde-contextualized.所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.同音（形）异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.同音异义HomophonesItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.11.同形异义HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.反义词AntonymyIt‘sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.成分分析法ComponentialAnalysis----分析词汇抽象意义It‘sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.述谓结构分析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出commandsect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。16.先设前提PresuppositionIt‘sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresuposesB.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.二知识点Majorviewsofmeaningstudy:ThenamingTheory 希腊ScholarPlatoTheconceptualism 观点代表人是JohnFirth/(旦Bloomfield阐述更有说服力TheConceptualistview——Ogden和Richards用classicsemantictriangleofsignificanceTheBehaviorism 英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明Thenamingtheory的局限性：It'sonlyapplicabletoNounsonly.Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdon’texistintherealworld.senseLexicalmeaningreference主要的意义关系Synonymy;Antonymy;Hyponymy;Polysemy;homonymy(l)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsSynonyms(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle分类(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning(4)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms例子：BritishEnglishLiftLuggageLorryPetrolFlatwindscreentorchAmericanEnglishElevatorBaggageTruckGasolineApartmentwindshieldflashlightkickthebucket=popoff二die二passaway=deceaseWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.例子:Accuse....ofcharge....withrebuke....forsourmilkRottentomatoesaddledeggsrancidbaconorbutterapolysemicword,i.e,awordwithseveralmeaning,istheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.completehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Accordingnamingtheorywordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatiotemporalsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactiontheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventexistedinthesituation.thecontextulistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield,whodrewonbehaviouristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.11Homophones—whentwowordsareidenticalinsoundRain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leekHomonymyHomographs—whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling分类Bowv./bown.tearv./tearnleadv./leadn.Completehomonyms—whentwowordsareidenticalinbothspelling例子Old—middle-aged—young;hot-warm-coldAntonym(2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词amatterofdegreebetween分类twoextremes例子Alive—dead;male—female;(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below句子间的意义关系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithY.XentailsY.XpresupposesY.Xisacontradiction.Xissemanticallyanomalous.Analysisofmeaning意义的分析Componentialanalysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning对词汇成分的分析Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning对句子意义的分析(1)isawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledSemanticfeatures.一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。Plusandminimumssignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsent,thesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.TwoaspectsofSentencemeaning:grammaticalandsemanticmeaning.16.Selectionalrestrictions---Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules.17.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication Predicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.itappliestoallformsofasentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogative.PredicationconsistsofArgumentsandPredicates.述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一^或数个论元和一^谓词组成。Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence,apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(hastwoarguments),one-placepredication(hasoneargument),andno-placepredication(hasnoargument).判断题：althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsoftheircomponentialmake-up,theyhavedifferentrolesinthewholepredication.thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,ect.itmayalsosaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberofnatureofthearguments.Theanalysisofmeaningisahighlyabstractandcomplicatedmatter.Sensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it‘sabstractandde-contextualized.Referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itisamatterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality.2.inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.what‘sgrammaticality?whatmighttakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?什么是语法性？一^语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的？Grammaticality---thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisno