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Chapter4Syntax
outline4.1Introduction4.2WordClasses
4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
4.4.1Structuralanalysis
4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar
4.6TransformationalGrammar
4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar
4.1Introduction
Syntax:studyoftheinternalstructuresofsentenceandtherulesforthecombinationofwords.DifferencebetweenmorphologyandsyntaxMorphology:theinternalstructureofwords
Syntax:thecombinationofwords
Syntacticrules(1)a.Thehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirds.b.Theblackbirdsfearthecriesofthehunter.(2)a.Jacklookeduptheword.b.Jacklookedthewordup.(3)*Criesfearthetheofhunterblackbirdsthe.Conclusion:Thestructureofsentencesuchaswordordercanchangethemeaning.Everysentenceisasequenceofwordsbutnoteverysequenceofwordsisasentence.Sentenceformationhasrules,sothatwehavewell/illformedor(un)grammaticalsentences.4.2WordClasses
Nounsarewordsusedtorefertopeople,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomenaandabstractideasasiftheywereallthings.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectivesarewordsthatdescribethething,quality,stateoractionwhichanounrefersto.beautiful,redVerbsarewordsusedtorefertovariousactionsandstatesinvolvingthe“things”inevents.run,walk,seemAdverbsarewordsthatdescribeoraddtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,anotheradverb,orasentence,andwhichanswersthequestionsintroducedbyhow,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositionsarewordsusedwithnounsinphrasesprovidinginformationabouttime,placeandotherconnectionsinvolvingactionsandthings.Pronounsarewordswhichmayreplacenounsornounphrases.Conjunctionsarewordsusedtoconnectandindicaterelationshipsbetweeneventsandthings.Articles,Exclamations,NumeralsThedefinitionsaboveareusefulforidentifyingmostforms,buttheyarenevercompletelyaccurate.Adifferentapproachmightfocusonsomeotherpropertiesofthewordclasses.Forexample,anouncanbedefinedasaformthatcomesafteranarticle(a,anandthe)andcantakeinflectionsforpossessive(-’s)andplural(-s).Ofcourse,notallnouns(eg.informationandmud)haveallthesecharacteristics.
PhrasestructurerulesRepresentation(通过词性表征句法):ThehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirdsArt+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NTheruleswhichgovernthestructureofphrasesareknownasphrasestructurerulesorrewriterules.Suchrulesallowforthegenerationofgrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
Definition:Anapproachtakenbysomegrammarians,mainlyineighteenth-centuryEngland,wholaydownrulesforthecorrector“proper”useofEnglishbyfollowingLatin.(a)Youmustnotsplitinfinitives.(b)Youmustnotendasentencewithapreposition.Toboldlygo.→Togoboldly.Prepositionisnotawordyoucanendasentencewith.(funny)4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
Definition:Anapproachtakenthroughoutthe20thcenturywhichattemptstodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageasitisusedbycollectingsamples.Varioustechniquesmaybeemployed.4.4.1Structuralanalysis
Adescriptiveapproachstudyingthedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagebymeansoftestframes,whichcanbesentenceswithemptyslotsinthem.(分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系)(4)The_____makesalotofnoise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)Ihearda_____yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(6)_____makesalotofnoise.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)(7)Ihear_____yesterday.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis
(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法)
Languageislinearandhierarchical.Wecananalyzelanguagefromitslargestleveltothesmallestlevel,thatisfromitsconstructiontoitsconstituentsbymeansofsubstitutabilityandexpansion.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituentsiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis(IC).Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)
hastwowaysofrepresentation:TreediagrambracketsTreediagram
(8)Themanboughtacar.
BracketsBracketscanalsobeusedbutarearguablylesseasytoread.(9)a.[themanboughtacar]b.[[theman][boughtacar]]c.[[[the][man]][[bought][acar]]]d.[[[the][man]][[bought][[a][car]]]]Merit:SolvingDisambiguityoldmenandwomen
4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar
(成分结构语法)Agrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.Themainprincipleislabelingandbracketingbasedontheideathatlinguisticunitscanbepartsoflargerconstructionsorcanthemselvesbemadeupofsmallerparts.(binaryandverb-centered)
Treediagram
BinaryVerb-centeredGenerativeRules(早期转换语法的概念—短语结构语法)
Thesyntaxofalanguageisthenseenasasetofruleswhichgeneratesentencesinthatlanguage.S→NP+VPVP→Vtr.+NPNP→Art+NVtr.→buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.N→man,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Art→a,an,the
(12)a.Themanboughtacar.b.Themansoldacar.c.Thewomanrepairedthebicycle.Sentencesgenerated:MorecomplexrulesThereisalargenumberofsentencesinEnglishthatsuchrulescannotproduce.Thissetofruleshasverylimitedgenerativepower.Theaboverulesonlydealwithsimplenounphrasesandtransitiveverbs.Theydonotallowustodealwithanypartoftheverbstructuresuchastense,modalsoraspect.Sentencesgenerated:(13)a.Themansellsthecarinthegarage.b.Thewomanwashesthebicycleinthestreet.c.Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.Merit:SolvingDisambiguity(14)Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.
inthehousearoundthecorner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性)MaryhelpedGeorge.CathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.JohnsaidCathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.Achildren’srhyme:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthewomanthatmarriedthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.SomeproblemsofCSG:A.LexicalselectionrestrictionWithsimpleconstituentstructurerules,anynouncanbeintroducedinacombinationwithanyverb.Thisdoesnothappeninnaturallanguage.Wecannotsay:(15)*Thebeliefwashedanapple.B.Discontinuousness(16)Theboycleanedtheroomup.(17)Thestudentlookedthewordupinthedictionary.C.Relationbetweensentencesthatseemtobecloselyrelatedstructurallyandsemantically(18)a.BrianhitGeorge→b.GeorgewashitbyBrian.
NoamChomsky,(1928--),founderofTransformationalGrammar4.6TransformationalGrammarGrammar:thereinTransformationalGrammar,
isinthebroadestway,atheoryofgrammarincludingphonologyandsemantics.AlinguistictheoryWeshallonlyfocusonthesyntacticaspectoftransformationalgrammar.I.Classicaltheory
Threeparts:phrasestructurerulestransformationalrules,morphophonemicrules.S→NP+VP;simpleactivedeclarativekernelsentences
(短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上,但是更加形式化;强调自上而下的生成。)Atransformationruleisasequenceofsymbolswhichcouldberewrittenconventionallyasdifferentsequence.
passivetransformationNP1+Aux+V+NP2→NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1(19)a.Theboyhasrepairedthebicycle.b.Thebicyclehasbeenrepairedbytheboy.Themorphophonemicruleswouldapplytotheoutputofthetransformationalrules.Theirfunctionistoprovidethecorrectmorphologicalshapetothevariouspartsofthestructureandfinallytogivetheappropriatephonologicaldescription.
(公式----言语表达)
Treediagram
II.Standardtheorycompetenceandperformance(Chapter1)deepstructureandsurfacestructureThedeepstructureofasentenceisitsmostbasicstructurebothsemanticallyandsyntactically.Thesurfacestructureistheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Itisfairlyarbitrary.Twosuperficiallysimilarstructuresmayconveyasubstantiallydifferentmessage.deepstructureandsurfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:(20)a.Johniseasytoplease.b.Johniseagertoplease.InthefirstsentenceJohnisdoingthepleasing,andinthelatterheisonthereceivingend.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.
StandardtheoryDifferentstagesofgenerativegrammarIII.ExtendedStandardTheoryIV.RevisedExtendedStandardTheoryV.GovernmentandBindingTheory(GB)[PrinciplesandParametersApproach(P&P)]VI.MinimalistProgram(MP)OtherbranchesofGG:Throughoutthedevelopmentoftransformationalgrammar,Chomskyhasmaintainedthecentralityofsyntax.Thesyntacticcomponentoftransformationalgrammaristhegenerativecore.Othercomponentsareinterpretiveanddependentonthebasicanddeepsyntacticstructure.Noteveryoneagreedwithhimonthispoint.Generativesemantics:givesemanticsthecentralgenerativerole.Casegrammar:seesyntaxascentralbutprefertoworkwith“case”structuresanddependencyrelations.4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG)
Linguistswhoadoptthisviewareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsofstructuresandpatternsthatlanguageshowstothefunctionsthatlanguagefulfillsandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.DifferencefromTG:functionandcontextual,purposefulHalliday’sthreemeta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.KHallidayIdeational
概念功能Ideational:thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldasarepresentationofexperience.(及物性(动词)、语态、)(19)Theboykickedthepost.(Thepostwaskickedbytheboy)(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(21)Thechildishomeless.(22)Thegirllaughed.(23)Thevisitorsaid“hello”.(24)Thereisagirloverthere.TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclearparticipantsExampleMaterial物质过程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(动作者),过程(Process),Goal(目标),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)Shebuiltthehouse(forthekids)Sheclimbed(themountain)Mental心理过程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者),过程(Process),Phenomenon(现象)ShesawthecarSheforgothisnameShelikedhismusicRelational关系过程Attributive(归属)Identifying(识别)Carrier(载体),Attribute(属性);Token(标记),Value(价值)MaggiewasourleaderMaggiewasstrongBehavioural行为过程Behaver(行为者)ShelaughedVerbal言语Sayer(讲话者)SherepliedExistential存在过程Existent(存在物)TherewasabeautifulprincessInterpersonal
人际功能Interpersonal:setupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andexpressthelanguageuser’sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.(语气(句型)、情态、语调)Traditionallydeclarative,interrogativeandimperativeDeclarative:giveinformationandperformthefunctionofstatementInterrogative:requestsomethingandperformthefunctionofquestion
Imperative:giveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommandsHowever,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wecanusedeclarativetoaskquestions,andtoissueinstructions.Mood(语气)Demandfor,andofferof,goodsorservicesDemandfor,andofferof,linguisticinformation(27)a.Passthesalt.b.Pleasepassthesalt.c.Canyoupassthesalt?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?e.Youcouldn’tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?Politenessincreases:Themoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.Textual
语篇功能Textual:enablethespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.(主位关系、信息结构(标记理论)、衔接)Wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.Informationstructure信息结构
given(old,known)+new(unknown)markedvsunmarked(28)a.Thereisabirdonthetree.(unmarked)b.Abirdisonthetree.(marked)(29)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.(lesscumbersome)b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.thematicrelation
主位关系Theme主位:thefirstconstituent,thestartingpointoftheclause----whatitisgoingtobeabout.Rheme述位:therestoftheclause(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.(31)a.Theraincamedown.(unmarked)b.Downcametherain.(marked)ThebookisonatableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctionalapproachesconcentratingontextualaspectsfeaturequitehighlyindiscourseanalysisandwewillbereturningtotheminChapter7.Summary4.1Definition4.2WordClasses(ten:5+5)
4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach
4.4TheDescriptiveApproach
4.4.1StructuralAnalysis(withslots)
4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(tree)4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)
4.6TransformationalGrammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,otherbranches)
4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar
(ideational,interpersonal,textual)Exercise1.Definethefollowingterms.syntax,wordclass,prescriptiveapproach,descriptiveapproach,ICanalysis,ultimateconstituent,transformationalgrammar,ideationalfunction,interpersonalfunction,textualfunction2.Drawtwotreediagramsforthefollowingsentencetoshowthedifferentrelationshipofinthecar.Thedogbitthemaninthecar.Questionsforchapterthree
andchapterfour1.HowmanytypesofmorphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?Statewhattheyareandillustratehowtheywork.2.Giveexamplestotellthedifferencebetweenderivationandcompounding.3.Giveexamplestoillustratethedistinctionbetweendeepstructureandsurfacestructure.Questionsforchapterthree
andchapterfour1.Howmanytypesofmorphemesareth
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