语言学名词解释

ADetailedNoteforMIodernLinguisticsChapter1:IntroductionDefinethefollowingterms:.Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage..Generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics..Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability..Synchronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare'stimeisasynchronicstudy..Diachronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare'stimeisadiachronicstudy..Languagecompetence:Theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generativegrammar(转化生成语法)isamodeloflanguagecompetence..Languageperformance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication..Langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently..Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation..Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication..Arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages..Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthat让makespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers..Duality:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel..Displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker..Culturaltransmission:Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned..Designfeatures:ItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationExplainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真实的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?(语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudyPhonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationPhonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationMorphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsSyntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesSemantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Pragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuseSociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学),neurologicallinguistics(神经语言学),mathematicallinguistics(数学语言学),andcomputationallinguistics(计算机语言学).Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?(现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive(规定性)；itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive(描述性);itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whether让is"correct"ornot.5.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic(共^性)~ordiachronic(历时性)?Why?(Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.)Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.6.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?Modernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.7・Saussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,让doesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.8・Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950'sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker'sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc„Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).9.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetence?。9.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetence?。xnidpwhai'isnaiieirdifference?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.Theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyCharlesHocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?人类语言的甄别性特征是什么?~Arbitrariness(任意性)：(课本答案：asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof)Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,让isnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Productivity(创造性)：(课本答案：creativity:animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend)Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossiblethecon-structionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosetheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.Duality(二重性)：(课本答案：afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication)Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Displacemen(t移位性):(课本答案：noanimalcan“talk”aboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation)Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Culturaltransmission(文化传递性)： (课本答案：detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication)Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.Chapter2:PhonologyDefinetheterms:1） .phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;让isconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages2） .auditoryphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer'spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.3） .acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.4） .internationalphoneticalphabet[IPA]:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.5） .Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,i.e.oneletter-symbolforonesound.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.6） .Narrowtranscription:isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Thisisthetranscriptionusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.7） .diacritics:isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.8） .Voiceless（清音）：whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.9） .Voicing（浊音）：Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.10） .Vowelthesoundsinproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.11） .Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.12） .phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.13） .phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.14） .phoneme:acollectionofabstractphoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Itisrepresentedorrealizedasacertainphonebyacertainphoneticcontext.15） .allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample[l]and[l]16） .phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.17） .Complementarydistribution:referstotherelationbetweentwosimilarphoneswhichareallophonesofthesamephoneme,andtheyoccurindifferentenvironments.18） .minimalpair：Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample:binandpin.19） .suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,toneandintonation.20） .tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantintonelanguages,forexample,inChinese.21） .intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Forexample,Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone.2・Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?5thetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么?~Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.3・Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?语音学的三个分支是什么。它们是如何研究语言学的?~（可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易理解）1） Articulatoryphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.2） Auditoryphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,andreachesimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.3） Acousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;让dealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（声谱仪）.4.Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofhumanbeingcontained?Pharyngealcavity,oralcavityandnasalcavity.5・Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的?~Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedinthiswayarevoiced.Whatisthefunctionofnasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthisfunction?Thefunctionofnasalcavityistonasalizethesoundsthatareproduced.Itdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassageconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalcavity.Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?Thevariouspatsofthetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,andtheback;theuvula;thesoftpalate;thehardpalate;theteethridge（alveolar）;theupperandlowerteeth;thelips.Howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?~宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacritics（变音符号）toshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]inusedforthesound[l]inwordslikeleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[hel0].Thesound[l]inallthesewordsisdifkrslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringbeforeanotherconsonant,iscalleddark[l],indicatedinnarrowtranscriptionas[l].Thenin[hel0],thesound[l]isfollowedbythedentalsound[0],itisthuscalledadental[l],andtranscribedas[hel0]（注:l下有一个向下的框，无法打印）innarrowtranscription.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?~英语的辅音是如何分类的?~1） bymannerofarticulation.stops（plosive爆破音）：[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]fricatives（磨擦音）：[f],[v],[s],[z],[9],[d],[f],[3],[h]affricates（破擦音）：[tf],[d3]liquids（lateral边音，流音）:[l],[r]nasals（鼻音）:[m],[n],[g]glides（semivowels半元音）:[w],[j]2） byplaceofarticulation:bilabial（双唇音）：[p],[b],[m],[w]labiodental（唇齿音）：[f],[v]dental（舌齿音）：[0],[d]alveolar（齿龈音）：[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]palatal（腭音）：[f],[3],[tf],[d3],[j]velar（软腭音）：[k],[g],[g]glottal（喉音，声门单）：[h]10・WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英语的元音是如何分类的?~1） Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][氏][a],centralvowelssuchas[3:][s][A],andbackvowelssuchas[u:][U][0:][0][a:]2） Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][U],semi-closevowelssuchas[e][3:],semi-openvowelssuchas[s][0:],andopenvowels suchas[氏][a] [A][0]and[a:].3） Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[a:], arerounded.4） Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][3:][0:][u:][a:],whiletherestareshortvowels.Whatisthedifferencebetweenamonophthongandadiphthong?Amonophthongisoneforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorgansofspeechstartinginthepositionofonevowelandimmediatelymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel,forexample:[i:],[i]aremonophthongs,and[al],[eI]arediphthongs.Howdophoneticsandphonologyditlerintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedintheditlerencebetween[l]and[l],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Phonetics:descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinedifferences.Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonology:descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Itisrealizedascertainphoneanditdistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencesbecausesuchdifferenceswillnotcausedifferencesinmeaning,butcanmakefinerdistinctionsofthesounds.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifierentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone:aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.（Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning）Phoneme:acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.（realizedascertainphone,distinguishmeaning）Allophones:actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.15・Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair?什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？（p34）Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.[p],[b]Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p],[ph].Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,killandbill.16・Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.(每条规则记一个例子)Sequentialrule:rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures.Deletionrule:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.Whataresupresegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfu