2023《中国文化概论》英文版全套讲义

Chapter1ChineseHistoryIAChronologicalTableofChineseHistory（中国历史编年表）Dynasty（朝代）Era（纪元）3000—2100B.C.Yao（尧）Shun（舜）Yu（禹）XiaDynasty（夏）2100—1600B.C.ShangDynasty（商）1600—1100B.C.ZhouDynasty（周）WesternZhouDynasty（西周）1100—771B.C.EasternZhouDynasty（东周）770—221B.C.WarringStates（战国）476—221B.C.QinDynasty（秦）221—206B.C.HanDynasty（汉）WesternHan（西汉）206B.C.—24ADEasternHan（东汉）25—220ThreeKingdoms（三国）Wei（魏）220—265ShuHan（蜀汉）221—263Wu（吴）222—280WesternJinDynasty（西晋）265—316EasternJinDynasty（东晋）317—420SouthernDynasty（南朝）Song（宋）420—479Qi（齐）479—502Liang（梁）502—557Chen（陈）557—589NorthernDynasty（北朝）NorthernWei（北魏）386—534EasternWei（东魏）534—550NorthernQi（北齐）550—577WesternWei（西魏）535—556NothernZhou（北周）557—581SuiDynasty（隋）581—618TangDynasty（唐）618—907FiveDynasties（五代）LaterLiang（后梁）907—923LaterTang（后唐）923—936LaterJin（后晋）936—946LaterHan（后汉）947—950LaterZhou（后周）951—960SongDynasty（宋）NorthernSongDynasty（北宋）960--1127SouthernSongDynasty（南宋）1127—1279LiaoDynasty（辽）916—1125JinDynasty（金）1115—1234YuanDynasty（元）1271—1368MingDynasty（明）1368—1644QingDynasty（清）1644—1911RepublicofChina（中华民国）1912—19491949—至今

IIASummaryofChineseHistoryChinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.IthasaterritoryaboutthesizeofEuropeandapopulationaboutaquarterofthatoftheworld.Inthisvastcountryofourstherearelargeareasoffertilelandwhichprovideuswithfoodandclothing;mountainrangeswhicharecoveredwithforestsandaboundinmineraldeposits;riversandlakeswhichfurnishuswithwatertransportandirrigation;alongcoastlinewhichfacilitatescommunicationwithnationsbeyondtheseas.Fromancienttimesourforefathershavelaboured,livedandmultipliedonthisvastterritory.Chinaisoneofthefourhomesoftheworld’searliestcivilizations.Ithasarecordedhistoryofnearly4000years.ThroughoutthehistoryofChinesecivilizationitsagricultureandhandicraftshavebeenrenownedfortheirhighlevelofsophistication.Duringthese4000yearsChinahasnurturedmanygreatthinkers,scientists,inventors,statesmen,strategists,menoflettersandartists,yieldingarichculturalheritageandfineculturaltraditions.TheancientcivilizationofChinahasexercisedgreatinfluenceonthemodernworld.EzraPound’stranslationofConfucianphilosophyarousedgreatinterestfromtheWesternworldinEasternphilosophy,andhistranslationofmanyancientChinesepoemsinterestedmenoflettersintheWest.ThepersonaldinnerplacesettingsusedbythefirstthreeAmericanpresidents,GeorgeWashington,JohnAdamsandThomasJefferson,wereofChineseorigin,avividevidenceofChina’sartisticattractionfortheAmericanfoundingfathers.TheChinesehistorycanbedividedintotwoperiods:theancientperiod（ancienttimes—1840）andthemodernperiod（1840—present）.TheAncientPeriodChinesehistorybeganwithtwolegendaryfigures—EmperorHuang（黄帝）andEmperorYan（炎帝）,who,togetherwiththeirtribes,inhabitedintheareaofHuangheRiver（YellowRiver）basinintheyearsaround3,000B.C..BythetimeofXiaDynasty（夏朝2100—1600B.C.）aftercenturiesoflivingsidebyside,thesetwotribesgraduallymeltedintoone.That’swhytheChinesepeopleusuallycallthemselves“thedescendantsofYanandHuang”（炎黄子孙）Peopleatthattimebelievedthatthelandtheylivedonwasthecenteroftheworld,andcalledtheirstatethe“MiddleKingdom”（中国）,thusgivingChinaitscountryname.Althoughtherearenoreliablehistoricaldatatotesttheexistenceofthisperiod,yetlegendsareabundant,andmodernarchaeologyhasfoundauthenticmaterials—potteryvesselsandstonetoolsandweaponsasofferingstoaccompanythedeadintheunearthedancienttombs,whichprovideevidenceofthelifeofourancestorsbeforetheXiaDynasty.Therearemanyoflegendsdescribingthelifeofthepeopleinthisperiod,especiallyofthethreesageKingsafterEmperorHuangandEmperorYan—Yao（尧）,Shun（舜）andYu（禹）.Let’squotesomehereforyoutoenjoy.HowYaoandShunPassedtheThronetotheWorthyandtheCapable.（尧、舜禅让）AccordingtotheBookofHistory（《尚书》,abookofancienttimes,recordingthehistoryfromthetimeofYao,Shun,YudowntotheearlyZhouDynasty）,whenYaowasveryold,hesummonedthechiefsoftheFourMountainsandsaid,“Ihavebeenonthethroneforseventyyears.WhocancarryoutthemandateofHeaveninplaceofme?”ThechiefsoftheFourMountainsallsaid,“Wehavenosuchvirtues.Wewouldonlydisgracethethrone.Yoursonistherightpersontoascendthethrone.”Yaosaid,“Iknowhim,heismeanandstupid.”AndYaoaskedhisofficialstorecommendsomeoneelse.ThentheKingwastoldthattherewasapooryoungmannamedShun.Hewasthesonofablindman.Hisfatherwaswicked,hismotherdeceitfulandhisbrotherarrogant,yethewasfilialtothemandlivedwiththeminharmony.TheKingsaid,“Thatistherightpersontobethenewking.Iwilltryhim.Iwillwivehimwithmytwodaughters,andobservehisbehavior.”Sohistwodaughters,Owang（娥皇）andNuying（女瑛）,cametothebendoftheGuiRivertobethewivesofShun.YearslaterShunascendedthethrone.Asthelegendhasit,whenShuninspectedthesouthernstates,hebecameveryillanddiedinXiang（湘，atpresentHunanProvince）.HistwowivesfollowedhisfootstepstoXiangandcriedtodeath.Theirtearsdentedthebamboo,whichisthebamboowehavenowinHunanProvince,called“tearbamboo”（斑竹）.HowYu,theGreat,ConqueredtheFlood（大禹治水）Sometimearound2200B.C.,agreatfloodcoveredtheearth.ShunsentGun（鲧）,Yu’sfathertocontroltheflood.Gunledpeopletobuilddamstoblockthefloodbutfailed.SoShungaveordertokillGun.WhenYugrewup,heundertookhisfather’sunfinishedtask.Thistimehedrewfromthelessonsofhisfather.Hedidnotbuilddams,butledpeopletodigditchestoleadthewateraway.Heworkedceaselesslyforthirteenyearsandsucceededinbringingthefloodundercontrol.Asthelegendhasit,sobusywashethat“thricehehadgonepasthisownhousewithoutevenlookingin.”Asarewardforhisachievement,ShunpassedthethronetoYu.WhenYudied,hissonQi（启）seizedpowerandfoundedXia,thefirstdynastyinChina,thusbeginningthehereditarysysteminChinesehistory.TheXiaDynasty（夏朝2100—1600B.C.）TheethnicgroupoftheXiaDynastyistheHuaXianationality（华夏族）.That’swhytheChinesepeoplearealsocalledtheHuaPeople（华人）inotherpartsoftheworld.AtthebeginningoftheXiaDynastytheYouhutribe（有扈氏部落）inthewestborderroseinrebellion.KingQiledhisarmyanddefeatedtheenemyinGan（甘）,atpresentinHenanProvince.ThisisthefirstbattlerecordedinChineseHistory.FarmingandstockbreedingwerealreadywelldevelopedintheXiaDynasty.Peoplewerefamiliarwiththephenomenaofthechangesofseasonsandarrangedtheirfarmworkandotheractivitiesaccordingly.ThelastkingofXia,Jie,（桀）isnotoriousinChinesehistoryforhisdebauchery.Hebuilt“pondsofwineandforestsofmeat”（酒池肉林）toentertainhimselfandhisconcubines,resultinginthefallofthestate.OnethingworthmentioningisthatthesecondKingofXia,Shaokang（少康）,usedsorghumtobrewwineinabout1800B.C.,thusbeginningtheChinesecultureofwine.TheShangDynasty（商朝，1600—1100B.C.）TheShangDynastyisrenownedforitshighdevelopmentofbronzetechniqueswhichbroughtabouttheseparationofChinesesocietyintotownandcountrydwellers.Thenobilityandtheircraftsmenlivedintowns,supportedbythepeasantslivinginthecountryside.RegularreligiousriteswerepopularamongtheShangnobles.Inadditiontoasupremegod,theyworshippedthespiritsoftheirancestors.Theceremoniesinvolvedthesacrificeofhundredsofanimals,domesticaswellasthoseobtainedfromthehunt.Theirtombswerefilledwithhundredsofobjectsmadeofgold,jade,bronzeandstone,fortheiruseintheafterlife,andinmanycases,theirslaveswereburiedwiththemaswell.OurknowledgeoftheShangperiodcomesnotonlyfromtheexcavationsofancienttombs,butalsofromtheinscriptionsonoraclebonesandtortoiseshells.InthetimeoftheShang,afavoritemethodofdivinationwastoscrapeathinspotonatortoiseshell,putitoveraflame,andhavedivinersinterpretthecracksthatappearedontheshell.ThiswasthebeginningoftheChinesewrittenlanguage.ThedissolutenessandextravaganceoftheShangrulersledtotherevoltofthepeople,andtheestablishmentoftheZhoudynasty.TheZhouDynasty（周朝，1100—221B.C.）TheZhouDynastylastedforover800years,includingWesternZhou,EasternZhou,SpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods.TheZhouDynastyisasignificantperiodinChinesehistoryforitsawtheevolutionoftheItisinterestingtonotehowtheShangdynastycametoitsend.KingZhou（纣王）,thelastShangemperor,wasadebauchedtyrant.Heusedtodinewiththreethousandpeopleinaforestwhoseleavesweremadeofmeatandtheydranklikecowsfromapondofwine.Meanwhile,thestateofZhouhadgainedinfluenceamongthevassalstatesbecauseofitswiseruler,KingWen（文王）.KingWen’sreputationandinfluencemadeZhou（纣王）jealous.OnoneofKingWen’stributaryvisitstotheShangcourt,KingZhouthrewhiminprison,wherehewasconfinedforsevenyears.Whileinprison,KingWenreflectedonYin（阴）andYang（阳）andhadtheideatoputFuxi’s（伏羲）trigramupontrigramtoformahexagram,symbolizingahigherlevelofdiversification.Hegavenamestothesixty-fourpossiblehexagramsandattachedtoeachatexttoconveyitsattribute.Later,theoracleannouncementsofthehexagramswereannotatedandembellishedbyConfucius,andTenWings（十翼）wereattachedtoit.ThatishowthebookYiJing（《易经》）camedowntous.HereIwouldliketosayafewwordsaboutFuxi,anearlysage（somesayemperor）.Asthelegendhasit,heobservedthephenomenainheavenatnight（夜观星象）,studiedthedevelopmentsofthingsonearth（日察地理）,learnedthelanguagesofbirdsandanimalsandthedispositionoftheland,drewfromthelessonsofpersonsnearandthingsafar,andthencreatedtheeighttrigrams（八卦）whicharefiguresmadeupofthreeelementsthatareeitherYinorYang,symbolizingHeaven,Earth,Thunder,Water,Mountain,Wind,FireandLake.AccordingtotheBookofHistory（《尚书》）,KingZhou（纣王）wassurprisedtoknowthatKingWenhadcreatedthehexagramsandcouldforetellthefuturewiththem.SowhenWen’ssoncametovisithisimprisonedfather,KingZhoukilledhim,madecakesofhisfleshandsentthemtoKingWentoseewhetherheknewthetruth.KingWencastahexagramandknewitwashisson’smeat.Wouldheeatthecakes?Ifnot,Zhouwouldkillhim;ifyes,howcouldafathereathisownson’smeat?Afterprayingtogodtopardonhim,heswallowedupthemeatcakewhichrolledupanddowninhisstomachandhefeltlikevomiting.Thenhevomitted（吐）outthemeatcakewhichimmediatelyturnedintoarabbit（兔）andranaway.That’stheoriginofrabbitsonearth.（TheEnglishwords,“vomit”and“rabbit”,havethesameChinesesound“tu”.）ThereleaseofKingWenwaseventuallyarrangedbybribingKingZhouwithbeautifulwomen,finehorsesandrareanimals.KingZhouwassopleasedwiththegiftsthatheevengrantedKingWentherighttobeararmsagainsthisneighboringstates.（授予征伐诸候的特权）.TheplantooverthrowKingZhouwaslongunderway.KingWenhadtakenadvantageoftherighttobringhisimmediateneighborsinline.ThenhesoughtoutthewisehermitJiangShang（姜尚）,knowntolateragesastheoldMasterJiang（姜太公），tobehisright-handman.OldMasterJiangspenthistimefishing,withastraighthook,thirtyinchesabovewater.Whenaskedaboutthisseeminglyfutileexercise,heanswered,“WhatIamafterisnotfish,butprincesandemperors.”Thatistosay,heeschewedthematerialgloriesoftheworldtowaitforthecallofatruenoblecause.KingWendiedwithouttakingactionsagainstKingZhou.Hissuccessor,KingWu（武王）madeJingShanghisChief-of-Staff.Twoyearslaterhiscallforarevolutionwasansweredbyalltheneighboringstates,whocameforthwithfourthousandchariots.BeforethejointforcesassembledinthefieldofMu（牧野，今河南淇县附近）,hedeliveredahistoricspeechthatwaspreservedforposterityintheBookofHistory（《尚书》）KingZhoumettherebelliousforceswithanarmyofsevenhundredthousand.However,itwasaragtagarmywithnowilltofight,andmostofthesoldierswentovertoKingWu.DisasterdidbefalltheevilZhou.Concedingdefeat,heretreatedtotheDeerPavilion（鹿台）,sceneofhisnumerouspastorgies.There,claspingtohisbosomhispricelessjadecollection,KingZhouburnedhimselftodeath.ThedownfalloftheShangDynastyheraldedanewperiodinChina’shistory—theZhouDynasty.TheZhouperiodwitnessedthe“contentionofonehundredschoolsofthought”（百家争鸣）.AmongthemthemostfamousareConfucius（孔子）,Mencius（孟子），LaoZi（老子）,ZhuangZi（庄子）,Mozi（墨子）andHanFeiZi（韩非子）.ConfuciusheldthatthroughtherestorationoftheearlyZhou’sritualandselfcultivation,aman’sconductwouldbecomenoble,unselfish,justandbenevolent.Menciusbelievedthatman’snaturewasbasicallygood,whileXunZi,anotherConfucianist,arguedthatitwasbasicallyevil.ThoseopposedtoConfuciusincludedMoZiwhopreachedadoctrineofuniversalloveasthebasisforpeaceandorder.TheresponseoftheTaoists,however,tothemoralandphysicalupheavalswastofavournotstronggovernment,butnogovernmentatall.Humaninstitutions,ambitionandstrivingwererejectedinfavourofsimplicity,humanityandareturntonature.BoththeConfucianandTaoistschoolsweretohaveanimmenseinfluenceonlaterChinesethought.Buttheimmediatewinnersinthecontroversiesoftheperiodwerethelegalists（法家）whoheldthathumannaturewasessentiallyevil,andonlyasystemofrewardandpunishmentcouldensurethesurvivalofthestateanditssupremacyoverallothers.TheQinDynasty（秦朝221—206B.C.）WiththehelpofthepoliticalandsocialreformscarriedoutbyShangYang（商鞅）,alegalist,QinShihuang（秦始皇）,theFirstEmperoroftheQinDynasty,succeededinannexingtheothersixstatesandestablishedthefirstcentralizedmonarchyinChinesehistory.ThoughtheQinDynastylastedonly15years,itssignificanceinChinesehistoryistremendous.TheQinEmpireusheredinfourcenturiesofunityunderitselfandthesucceedingHanEmperors.Thecountrywasdividedintoprovincesanddistricts,allplacedunderthecontrolofthecentralgovernment;thewrittenlanguagewassimplifiedandmadeuniform,andtheweights,measuresandcoinagewerestandardized.Anetworkofroadswasbuilt,stretchingfromthecapitaltothefurthestlimitsoftheEmpire,whilestandarddimensionsweresetforthewheel-baseofallcarriagesandcarts.Inanattempttoendallopposition,over400scholarswereburiedalive,andallbookswereburnt,exceptforthoseontechnology,divination,medicineandagriculture.Landreclamation,tillingofthesoilandweavingoftextileswereencouraged.Asadefenceagainstthenorthernnomads,hundredsandthousandsofpeasantswereconscriptedtojoinupandextendthewallsoftheformernorthernstatesintotheGreatWallofChina.ThecompletedGreatWallstretchedsometenthousandli（里）（around5,000kilometers）,theonlyman-madestructureonearthwhichisvisiblefromthemoon.ThoughQinShihuang’scontributiontoChina’scivilizationisgreat,yetintraditionalcultureheisrememberedmainlyforhistyrannyandcruelty.NotlongafterQinShihuang’sdeath,arebellionbrokeout（thefirstpeasantuprisinginChina’shistory,ledbyChenSheng（陈胜）andWuGuang（吴广））andtheQinEmpirewasoverthrown.TheHanDynasty（汉朝206B.C.—220A.D.）DrawinglessonsofdefeatfromtheQinDynasty,theearlyHanrulingclassadoptedapolicyofrehabilitation.Asaresult,theHanDynastysawpeaceandprosperity.Agricultureandhandicraftmaderapiddevelopment,commerceflourishedandtherewereavarietyofnotableachievementsincultureandscience,includingSimaQian’sTheRecordsoftheHistorians（司马迁：《史记》）andtheinventionoftheseismograph（地动仪）byZhangHeng（张衡）.Theinventionofpaper,perhapsChina’sgreatestcontributiontoworldculture,wasalsoaproductofthisperiod.TheConfucianclassicswererecovered,re-editedandcommentedon,andConfucianismbecamethemostimportantphilosophy.UnderEmperorWudiofHan（汉武帝,140—87B.C.）,acivilserviceexamination（科举考试）wassetuptoselectofficialsofvariouslevelsofthegovernment.Confucianclassicsweremadethebasisofthisexamination,andthusthesupremacyoftheConfucianschoolwasestablished.HanWudialsosentZhangQin（张骞）onfriendlyexpeditionstotheWesternRegions,reachingRome,openinguptheSilkRoad（丝绸之路）totheWest.Wei（魏220—265），Jin（晋265—420）SouthernandNorthernDynasties（南北朝420—581）WiththedownfalloftheHanDynasty,ChinaenteredtheThreeKingdomsPeriod,inwhichChineseterritorywasdividedbetweenthestatesofWei（魏），ShuHan（蜀汉）andWu（吴）.BurningandpillagingravagedthecountryinthelastyearsoftheHanDynasty,andthethreekingdomsaroseascontendersforimperialpower.ThefamousnovelRomanceoftheThreeKingdoms（《三国演义》）byLuoGuanzhong（罗贯中）wasbasedonthehistoricalfactsofthisperiod.Attheendofthisperiod,ChinawasbrieflyunitedduringtheJinDynasty（晋朝，265—420）butthiswasfollowedbyaperiodofdivisionduringtheSouthernandNorthernDynasties（420—589）.IntheperiodfromtheThreeKingdomstotheSouthernandNorthernDynasties,thereappearedsomegreatliteraryandscientificfigures,amongwhomwereZuChongzi（祖冲之），whomadenotablecontributionstomathematics,astronomyandengineering,especiallythecalculationoftherelationofthecircle’scircumferencetoitsdiameter（圆周率）；WangXizhi（王羲之），oneofthegreatestChinesecalligraphers;andGuKaizi（顾恺之），whowasamongthemostfamouspaintersinChina.TheSuiDynasty（隋朝，581—618）Afteracoupd’etat（[ku:deita:]军事政变）inthenortherncapitalofLuoyang,SuiWendi（隋文帝）proclaimedhimselfEmperorinthenorth.In589A.D.,hereunitedtheempire.Taxationandconscriptionwerereduced,andnewpublicworksbegan.ThemostoutstandingachievementsweretheconstructionoftheGrandCanal（大运河）andZhaozhouBridge（赵州桥）.Theformer,linkingtheYellowandYangtzeRiversfromBeijingtoHangzhou,wasaprojectofeconomicandpoliticalsignificance.Thelatterremainstheworld’soldeststonearcbridge.ButtheSuiDynastyalsosquanderedhugeresourcesofmoneyandmanpoweronthebuildingofthegrandpalacesandpleasuregardensinLuoyang,andonwarsagainsttheneighbouringstates.Followingthecollapseofhisfrontierpolicy,andaseriesofdisastrouswarsagainstKorea,theSuiEmperor（隋炀帝）wasassassinatedin618A.D.Oneoftherebelofficers,LiShimin（李世民）seizedpower,andbegantheTangDynasty.TheTangDynasty（唐朝，618—907）TheTangDynastywasaprimetimeinancientChinesehistory,knownforitsprosperityofeconomy,flourishingofculture,highdevelopmentofagriculture,commerceandhandicrafts,andcloserelationswiththeneighbouringcountries—India,KoreaandJapan.TheroutetotheWesternregionswasreopened,andtradeaccelerated.Tang’sarchitecturewasfamousforthegrandeurandmagnificenceofitspalaces,templesandpagodas.TheTangperiodwastherenaissanceofclassicalliterature.Nearly5,000poemswritteninthisperiodarestillinexistence.Theyarebeyondcomparisoninrichnessofcontentsandavarietyofformsandstyles.AmongthehundredsofpoetsoftheTangDynastythebestknownareLiBai（李白），DuFu（杜甫）andBaiJuyi（白居易）.ItwasinthisperiodthatXuanZang（玄奘），aBuddhistmonkandscholar,wassenttoWesternregions.In627A.D.,hesetoutfromChang’an（长安，currentlyXi’an）toIndia.HewentthroughGansu（甘肃），Xinjiang（新疆）andCentralAsia,andafteruntoldhardships,finallyreachedIndia,wherehelivedfor15yearsvisitingmanyfamoustemples.HestudiedBuddhistclassicsandlearnedtheBuddhistdoctrinesfromtheIndianmonkscholars.AfterreturningtoChang’an,hetranslated75Buddhistscriptures（1335volumes）intoChinese.Healsowroteanaccountofhistrip,entitledRecordsoftheWesternTravels（《大唐西域记》），animportantreferenceforresearcherstostudythehistoryandgeographyofancientIndia,Nepal（尼泊尔）andPakistan（巴基斯坦），aswellasCentralAsia.ThenovelJourneytotheWest（《西游记》），isamythologicalaccountofhistriptoIndia.ThemainpartofthenovelisaseriesofepisodesrelatingtotheadventuresofXuanZangonapilgrimagetotheWesternRegion（i.e.India）.Heisaccompaniedbyseveralmythologicalfigures,suchasSunWukong（孙悟空，theMonkeyKing）,therealheroofthenovel,whohasstrongmagicpowerandalwaysoutwitsvariouskindsofghostsandmonsters.AnotherBuddhistmonk,senttoJapanintheTangperiod,wasJianZhen（鉴真）.HetriedfivetimestosailfromYangzhou（扬州）inJiangsuProvincetoJapan.Eachtimehefailedandheeventuallybecameblind.Onhissixthtry,accompaniedby24disciples,hereachedsouthernKyushu（九州）.Thatwasin754A.D.,andhewasthen67.Thenextyear,inNara（奈良），Japan’scapitalatthattime,hebegantopreachBuddhistteachingsandbecamethefounderoftheRitsugkuSectinJapan.AccompanyinghimtoJapanwerearchitects,artists,doctorsandpharmacists.Theytookmanyworkswiththem,anddidmuchtostimulatetheculturalexchangebetweenthetwocountries.ThemagnificentTang-styledToshodaiTemple（唐昭提寺）atNarastilllooksmuchthesameasitdidwhenitwasbuiltunderJianZhen’sdirections.JianZhenlivedfornearly10yearsinJapananddiedtherein763.TheFiveDynasties （五代907—960）TheSongDynasty （宋朝960—1279）TheLiaoDynasty （辽朝916—1125）TheJinDynasty （金朝1115—1234）AfterthefalloftheTangDynasty,andforthenext53years,powerfellintothehandsofwarlordsandthisperiodisknowninChinesehistoryas“theperiodoffivedynastiesandtenkingdoms”（五代十国）.Eventually,intheyear960,oneofthewarlords,ZhaoKuangyin（赵匡胤）succeededinreunitingthegreaterpartofthecountryandfoundedtheSongDynasty.HehimselfiscalledinhistorySongTaizu（宋太祖）.However,thenortheastremainedunderthecontrolofagroupofTartarnomads,knownastheKhitan（契丹），whohadtakenthenameoftheLiaoDynasty.ConcurrentlythenorthwestwasoccupiedbyanothergroupofTartarsknownastheXixia（西夏）.TheSongEmperorsmadeseveralattemptstorecovertheseregionsbutfailed.Thiswastheresultnotonlyofmilitaryweakness,butofgeneralinternalweakness.ThentheSongEmperorsunitedwiththeJinTartarstoattacktheKhitaninordertorestoretheN.E.provincestothesong.ButtheJintartarsnotonlyovercametheKhitan,butmovedontoconquerthewholeofthenorthoftheHuaiRiver（淮河）andin1125foundedtheJinDynasty.In1127,theSongcapitalofKaifengfell,andtheEmperorandhisheirweretakenintocaptivity.ThatwastheendoftheNorthernSongDynasty.TheremnantsoftheSongfollowersmovedtothesouthandmadeHangzhou（杭州）itscapital.ThiswasknowninhistoryastheSouthernSongDynasty,controllingonlytheYangtzeRivervalleyandtheregionsofthesouth.Oneinterestingphenomenonthatshouldbenotedisthatfromthetenthcenturyonwards,theconstantpressureonnorthChinabythenomadshadledtomoreandmoreofthewealthyfamiliesfleeingtothesouth.SowhenthenorthernSongfell,thesouthwasalreadyeconomicallydeveloped.Thoughlosinghalfofthecountrytothenorthernnomads,theSouthernSongrulersandgentrystilllivedalifeofextravaganceandease.Amongthedaughtersofwealthyfamilies,thecustomoffootbindingwaspopular.Theybelievedthatsmallfeetwouldmakethemlookgracefulandsexual.Iftheywerecapturedbythenortherntartars,theywerenottakenawaybecausetheycouldnotwalklongdistances.Thoughlessharmfulthanthe19thcenturyEuropeancustomofwaist-binding,itservedthesamepurposeofemphasizingtheupper-classwoman’sdependenceonmanashisplaything.Peasantwomenwhohadtoworkinthefieldswiththeirmenfolkwerenotsubjectedtothiscruelfashion.ThoughtheSongperiodwasoneofextrememilitaryandpoliticalweakness,itsscienceandtechnology,literatureandart,weredevelopingrapidly.Therewerevariousreasons.Oneofthemwastheopeningofforeigntrade.HugemaritimecentresgrewupasportssuchasCantonandHangzhou,andfromthemgreatocean-goingjunkscarryingChinesesilksandporcelainssailedtoIndia,theMiddleEastandEastAfrica.Theissueofpapermoneyalsoacceleratedtradeandcommerce.Merchantshaddevelopedasystemofdepositingstocksorcoinsinacertainareainexchangefornoteswhichcouldbecashedinanotherarea.TheinventionofprintingbymovabletypebyBiSheng（毕升）stimulatedliterarycreation.Thecompass,whichhadbeeninventedbytheChineseatamuchearlierdate,wasusedinnavigationduringthisperiod.Themisfortunesofthecountrymademanymenofletterstakeuptheirpenstoexpresstheirsorrowsoverthecountryandtheirfrustrationinlife.Influencedbyexoticmusic,theycreatedanewformofpoetryconsistingoflinesofdifferentlengths—Ci（词）.ThemostfamousCipoetswereLiuYong（柳永）,ZhouBangxian（周邦彦），SuShi（苏轼）andXiQiji（辛弃疾）.SonglandscapepaintingandSongporcelainarerenownedthroughouttheworldeventoday.Andthecraftsmanship,theeleganceandsimplicityofSongceramicshasneverbeensurpassed.ItwasnotonlyintheartsthatSongexcelled.Inscienceandtechnology,theperiodwasfamousforthedevelopmentofthemagneticcompass,gunpowderandprinting.Thefirsttextintheworldtodescribeamagneticcompassclearly（thencalled“south-pointingneedle”）wastheworkentitledDreamsPoolEssays（《梦溪笔谈》），publishedbytheSongmathematicianShenKuo（沈括）.TheYuanDynasty（元朝1271—1368）TheMingDynasty（明朝1368—1644）TheQingDynasty（清朝1644—1911）In1276theYuanMongolscapturedthesouthernSongcapitalofHangzhou,andthewholeofChinapassedundertheMongolyoke.KubluiKhan（忽必烈汉）wasproclaimedEmperorofallChinaandmovedthecapitaltoBeijing.ThatwasthebeginningofYuanDynasty.ButtheMongolEmpirelastedlessthanahundredyears,fortheydistrustedtheHanpeopleandappointednon-Hanstothetopadministrativeposts.ThisweakenedtheYuanrule,andduringthe1360s,apeasantrevoltledbyZhuYuanzhang（朱元璋）capturedNanjingandgainedcontroloftheYantzeRivervalley.TheMongolsweredrivennorthwa