文档语言学笔记The-Use-of-English

TheUseofEnglish8.1PragmaticApproachtoLanguage8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）Itisthestudyofmeaninginuse.meaningincontext.speakermeaning.contextualmeaning.Pragmaticsstudiescommunication(utteranceproductionandcomprehension)fromafunctional(i.e.social,cultural,cognitive)perspective.8.1.2Semantics(语义学)V.SPragmaticsSemanticism:semanticsincludespragmaticsPragmaticism:pragmaticsincludessemanticsComplementarism:semanticsstudiesmeaningintheabstract;pragmaticsstudiesmeaninginthecontext/use.8.2DeicticExpressions（指示语）8.2.1DeixisDeixis:(fromGreek)anchoring,pointing(towardthecontext)phenomenon.Thelinguisticmeansusedinthisfunctionareknownasdeictics,indexicals(orindexical/deicticexpressions).Examples:pronouns,demonstratives,timeandplaceadverbs,andsomegrammaticalcategoriessuchastense.8.2.2CharacteristicsinuseTheegocentricityofdeixisDeicticexpressionsareanchoredtospecificpointsinthecommunicativeevent.Theunmarkedpoints,calledthedeicticcenter,aretypicallyassumedtobeasfollows(S.Levinson:Pragmatics):Ilovethisgame!1)thecentralpersonisthespeaker2)thecentraltimeisthetimeatwhichthespeakerproducestheutterance3)thecentralplaceisthespeaker’slocationatutterancetime4)thediscoursecenteristhepointwhichthespeakeriscurrentlyatintheproductionofhisutterance5)thesocialcenteristhespeaker’ssocialstatusandrank,towhichthestatusorrankofaddresseesorreferentsisrelative.8.2.3DeicticVS.Non-deicticDeictic:gestural/symbolicYou,you,butnotyou,aredismissed.(gestural)Whatdidyousay?(Symbolic)Non-deictic:anaphoric/non-anaphoricJackisastudent.HecomesfromBritain.Youcannevertellwhatsextheyarenowadays.Thereyougoagain./Therewego.Ididthisandthat.8.2.4ClassificationofdeicticPersondeixisPlacedeixisTimedeixisSocialdeixisDiscoursedeixis8.3SpeechActTheorySayingisacting.(JohnAustin,HowtoDoThingswithWords,1962)“Speechacts”refertoactionsperformedviautterances.Speechactsare“thebasicorminimalunitsoflinguisticcommunication”.8.3.1Constatives(表述句）andperformatives（施为句）a.Thereisabookonthedesk.b.IpromiseI’llbetheretensharptomorrow.hereby-test:firstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoice,performativeverbs(withexceptions,though)8.3.3CollapseofPerformativeHypothesisa.Notallperformativeutterancesrequireaperformativeverb;b.Anutterancewithaperformativeverbmaynotbethetypeofactsuggestedbytheverb;8.3.4felicityconditions（适切条件）a.Essentialcondition（基本条件）b.Preparatorycondition(预备条件）c.Propositionalcontentcondition（命题内容条件）d.Sinceritycondition（真诚条件）Felicityconditionsforapromise:1)Thespeakercandowhatispromised;(基本）2）Thepromisedacthasnottakenplaceyet;(预备）3）Theutteranceisaboutafutureact;Thepromisedactistothebenefitofthehearer;Thepromisedactwillbefulfilledbythespeaker;（命题内容）4)Thespeakermeanswhathesays.（真诚）etc.Searle’sclassificationofillocutionaryactsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）describe,inform,deny,state,claim,assert,remind,etc.Directives（指令类）:request,ask,urge,tell,demand,order,advise,command,beseech,etc.Commissives（承诺类）:commit,promise,threaten,pledge,consent,refuse,offer,guarantee,etc.Expressives（表达类）:apologize,boast,thank,deplore,welcome,congratulate,greet,etc.Declarations（宣告类）:declare,resign,appoint,nominate,bless,christen,name,etc.8.4Presupposition8.4.1Presuppositionandentailmentthedesirethatthisself-imagebeappreciatedandapprovedof)claimedbyinteractants.9.4DevelopingpragmaticcompetenceTheVarietiesofEnglish10.1InterrelationbetweenlanguageandsocietyIndicationsofinterralation/relatednessbetweenlanguageandsocietyAnobviousindicationoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsocietyisthefactthatlanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfilanimportantsocialfunction---tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.Anotherindicationisthatusersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyhissocialbackground.Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.Chomsky(cognitiveapproach,idealspeaker)vs.Saussure(socialsemioticapproach)Anyuseoflanguageissociallymarked/stamped.Associetychanges,languagewillchange.Languagereflectssociety,asshownbythelexiconof"snow","camel".WhereasEnglish,forexample,hasonlyonewordforsnow(ortwoifweincludesleet),Eskimohasseveral.Thereasonsforthisareobvious.ItisessentialforEskimostobeabletodistinguishefficientlybetweendifferenttypesofsnow.English,ofcourse,isquiteabletomakethesamedistinctions:finesnow,drysnow,softsnow,andsoon,butinEskimosthissortofdistinctionislexicalized---madebymeansofindividualwords.10.1.2AMacro-sociolinguistics:abird's-eyeview:howlanguagefunctionsinsocietyandhowlanguagereflectsthesocialdifferentiations.[sociologyoflanguage]Micro-sociolinguistics:aworm's-eyeview:howlanguagefunctionsinthecommunicationbetweenmembersofthesociety.[sociolinguistics]Itisanobviousfactthatpeoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.ForexamplealltheEnglish–speakingpeopledonotspeakthesametypeofEnglish.Andthelanguageusedbythesameindividualvariesascircumstancesvary.10.2RegionaldialectsofEnglish10.2.1LanguageanddialectLanguage:writingsystem;mayincludeseveraldialects;oftenpoliticallydefinedDialect:[traditionallyonlyvariationwithspace,butnowwiththespace,thetemporalfactorandsocialfactors]usu.spoken;oftenpartofalanguage;notdistinctenoughfromotherdialectsofthesamelanguagetobetreatedasanindependentlanguage;oftenmarkedbygeographicalorsocialbarriers;restrictedpurposesChinesevs.CantoneseRegionaldialectoftencoincideswithgeographicalbarriers,likemountains,rivers,etc.[accent]Transitionfromonedialecttoanotherisgradualratherthanabrupt.Twoneighboringdialectsareoftenintelligible.10.2.2TemporaldialectLanguageisalsodeterminedbythetimewelivein.[temporaldistance]OldEnglish;MiddleEnglish;ModernEnglish[diachronic/historicallinguisticsvs.synchroniclinguistics]10.3SocialdialectsofEnglish10.3.1Socialdialect(alsosocial-classdialect,sociolect,classdialect)[socialdistance]arisesfromtheseparationbroughtaboutdifferentsocialconditions.Itreferstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.10.3.2SocialfactorsSocialfactorsthatarebelievedtoinfluenceourlanguagebehavior:class,gender,age,ethnicidentity,educationbackground,occupation,andreligiousbelief.10.4Registertheory10.4.1Fieldofdiscourse:relatedtowhatisgoingon,thepurposeandthesubjectmatterofcommunication;answersthequestionsofwhyandaboutwhatcommunicationtakesplace.Technical:linguisticlectures,specialistcommunication[vocabulary]Non-technical:shopping,chatting10.4.2Tenorofdiscourse:answersthequestionoftowhomthespeakeriscommunicating,determinesthelevelofformalityoflanguageuse.10.4.3Modeofdiscourse:answersthequestionofhowcommunicationtakesplace;spokenorwritten;spontaneousornon-spontaneous.11.1SpeechcommunitySpeechCommunityisaconceptinsociolinguistics,itisagroupofspeakerswhosharethesameregularitiesoflanguageuse,andhavethesamelanguageattitudetowardcommunitiylanguagevariation.VirtualSC,migrantworkerSC,urbanSC,ruralSC,internationalstudentSC,etc.FiveelementsofaSC:population,region,publicfacilities,interaction,identity.11.2PidginandCreolePidgins(洋泾浜)aremixedorblendedlanguagesusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Chinese-Englishpidgin:limitedvocabularyandreducedgrammar.1)Phonetics:[l]→[r]room-loomright-light2)thewordsidewaswidelyusedtosignifyspace,top-side=above,bottom-side=below,farside=beyond,allo-side=around,what-tim=whennothertim=again3)basicwordsoriginfromEnglish:chin-chindie-lo,buy-lo,pay-lo,wailo,numpaone