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DiscussionPaper 15/2021

MainstreamingSouth-SouthandTriangularCooperation

WorkinProgressattheUnitedNations

SebastianHaug

MainstreamingSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation

WorkinprogressattheUnitedNations

SebastianHaug

Bonn2021

DiscussionPaper/DeutschesInstitutfürEntwicklungspolitik

ISSN(Print)1860-0441

ISSN(Online)2512-8698

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DrSebastianHaugisaresearcherintheresearchprogramme“Inter-andTransnationalCooperationwiththeGlobalSouth”attheGermanDevelopmentInstitute/DeutschesInstitutfürEntwicklungspolitik(DIE).

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sebastian.haug@die-gdi.de

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Acknowledgements

IwouldliketothankLaraHammersenforherresearchassistance;CorneliaHornschild,RobertFurlongandMichaelaKeiserforsupportduringthepublicationprocess;aswellasAnitaAmorim,SteffenBauer,Max-OttoBaumann,NilimaGulrajani,ChristineHackenesch,Anna-KatharinaHornidge,HeinerJanus,NielsKeijzer,StephanKlingebiel,MaoRuipeng,LauraTrajberWaisbichandSilkeWeinlichforcommentsandsuggestionsonthepresentationofkeyfindingsandearlierdraftsofthispaper.Iamalsogratefultoformercolleagues,expertsandofficialswhoagreedtobeinterviewedorwerereadytoengageindetailedconversations,includingAmaBrandford-Arthur,CarlosCorrea,DebelGutta,AlainKanyinda,NadinePiefer-SöylerandNicolasRandin.Throughouttheresearchanddraftingprocessthatunfoldedagainstthebackdropofpandemic-relatedlockdowns,theInter-andTransnationalCooperationprogrammeattheGermanDevelopmentInstitute/DeutschesInstitutfürEntwicklungspolitik(DIE)providedastableandencouragingresearchenvironment.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Executivesummary

1

Introduction

3

1

Whatistobemainstreamed?Terminologicaltrajectoryanddefinitionsof

South-Southandtriangularcooperation

5

1.1

TheexpansionofSouth-Southterminology

6

1.2

Officialdefinitionsanddefactomeanings

9

2

MainstreamingSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation:Ascorecardof

15UNentities

14

2.1

TheSSTCscorecard:Towardsasystematicoverview

16

2.2

Champions,waverersandstragglers:PatternsofSSTCmainstreaming

18

3

ThepoliticsofSouth-Southandtriangularcooperationsupport:Behindthe

scenesofUNmainstreamingefforts

22

3.1

Atoolforensuringorganisationalrelevance

23

3.2

Anelementofintra-organisationaldynamics

25

3.3

Asiteofmemberstategeopolitics,notablyChina’sexpandingclout

27

4

Beyondmainstreaming?ThewayaheadforUNengagementwith

South-Southandtriangularcooperation

33

4.1

Mainstreamingreconsidered

34

4.2

Workinprogress:ExpandingspaceforcooperationbeyondNorth-South

35

4.3

Summary,furtherresearchandrecommendations

37

References

41

Annex

Annex1:

Interviewdetails

53

Annex2:

Interviewtemplate

54

Annex3:

Scorecardoperationalisation

55

Annex4:

South-Southcooperationinannualreports(perentity)

56

Tables

Table1:

ThreestrandsofhowSouth-Southcooperationhasbeenunderstoodin

practice

13

Table2:

Ascorecard:South-South(andtriangular)cooperationmainstreaming

effortsacrossUNentities

17

Figures

Figure1:TowardsSouth-South(andtriangular)cooperation–terminological

shiftsattheUN(1979-2019)

9

Figure2:

ReferencestoSouth-Southcooperationovertime:Annualreports

(2000-2019)

20

Figure3:CorrelationbetweenSSTCmainstreamingscoresandtherelative

importanceofChinesefunding

32

Abbreviations

BAPA

BRI

DAC

ECLAC

FAO

G77

IFAD

ILO

ODA

OECD

SDG

SSC

SSTC

TCDC

UN

UNCTAD

UNDP

UNEP

UNESCO

UNFPA

UN-Habitat

UNHCR

UNICEF

UNIDO

UNODC

UNOSSC

UNWomen

WEOG

WFP

WHO

BuenosAiresPlanofAction

BeltandRoadInitiative

DevelopmentAssistanceCommittee

EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean

FoodandAgricultureOrganization

Groupof77

InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment

InternationalLabourOrganization

officialdevelopmentassistance

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

SustainableDevelopmentGoal

South-Southcooperation

South-Southandtriangularcooperation

technicalcooperationamongdevelopingcountries

UnitedNations

UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization

UnitedNationsPopulationFund

UnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme

UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees

UnitedNationsChildren’sFund

UnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization

UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime

UnitedNationsOfficeforSouth-SouthCooperation

UnitedNationsEntityforGenderEqualityandtheEmpowermentofWomen

WesternEuropeanandOthersGroup

WorldFoodProgramme

WorldHealthOrganization

MainstreamingSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation:workinprogressattheUnitedNations

Executivesummary

South-Southcooperation–usuallyunderstoodasreferringtocollaborationamongdevelopingcountries–hasbecomeanincreasinglyvisiblepartofinternationaldevelopmentprocesses.Togetherwiththeexpansionoftriangularcooperation–thatis,South-Southeffortssupportedbyatraditionaldonororamultilateralorganisation–thegrowingcloutofSouth-Southschemesreflectsshiftsintheglobaldistributionofpowerandwealth.Againstthisbackdrop,UnitedNations(UN)entitieshaverepeatedlybeenaskedtomainstreamtheirsupportforSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation(SSTC),butthereishardlyanysystematiccomparativeevidenceonwhetherandhowtheyhavedoneso,andwhatthebroaderSSTCsupportlandscapelookslikeacrosstheUN.Thispaperaddressesthisgapbymakingthefollowingcontributions:

Regardingterminology,thepapershowsthatthetrajectoryofSouth-SouthcooperationattheUNgoesbacktothe1970sand1980s,andthatthemorerecentriseofSouth-Southreferencesistheresultofanincrementalprocesswhichincludesawiderangeofactorsandfora,notablytheinstitutionalisedrepresentativesof(self-assigned)developingcountriesthemselves.ThetropeofSouth-Southarguablyacknowledgestheexpandingcloutof(formerly)marginalisedcountriesininternationalaffairsandhasthuscometobeseenasamoreappropriateframethanpreviousterminologyontechnicalcollaboration.AddingtriangularcooperationtothefocusonSouth-South,thenotionof“South-Southandtriangularcooperation”hascometostandforeffortsattheUNtosupportandengagewithcooperationamongdevelopingcountries(seeSection1).

Ondefinitionsandmeanings,thepapertracesdifferentunderstandingsofSouth-SouthcooperationattheUNandprovidesanoverviewofthreepartlycomplementaryandpartlycontradictoryapproachesthatunderstandSouth-Southcooperationtobeasetoftechnicalcooperationmodalities,ageneralpoliticalnarrativeorashorthandforinter-statecooperationbeyondNorth-Southassistance.AlthoughthelatteristhedominantdefactounderstandingamongUNentities,thevarietyofmeaningspointstotheconsiderabledefinitionalblurrinessattachedtoSouth-Southcooperationthatmaybepoliticallyconvenientbutmakessystematicanalysisaratherdifficultundertaking(seeSection1).

IntermsofSSTCmainstreaming,theanalysisfocusesonorganisationaleffortsoverthelasttwodecadesaimedatintegratingafocusonsupportingbothSouth-SouthaswellastriangularcooperationintotheinstitutionalsetupofentitiesacrosstheUNdevelopmentsystem.Itcentresaroundascorecardof15UNentitiesthatmapstheirlevelofinstitutionalfocusonSSTC,basedoninsightsfromstrategies,annualreports,publications,monitoringframeworks,budgetsandorganisationalstructures.ThescorecardhighlightsthesubstantivelevelofdiversityacrosstheUNandisthefirstexternalsystematicassessmentofhowUNentitieshavefaredwithregardtoSSTCmainstreaming(seeSection2).

Basedonthescorecard,thepapergroupsUNentitiesintermsoftheirmainstreamingefforts,usingthetentativelabelsof“champions”,“waverers”and“stragglers”formappingpatternsofexplicitSSTCengagement.WhereaschampionssuchastheUN’sFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)haveconsistentlyengagedwithSSTCandindeedconsiderablyexpandedtheirengagement,wavererssuchastheUNEnvironment

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SebastianHaug

Programmehaveoscillatedovertime.StragglerssuchastheUNHighCommissionerforRefugeeshavedevelopedlittletonoinstitutionalfocusonSSTC(seeSection2).

Thepaperidentifiesthreekeyfactorsthat,inadditiontobeliefsinthefunctionalrelevanceandpotentialeffectivenessofSSTC,haveaccompaniedandconditionedUNmainstreamingefforts.First,SSTCsupporthasbeenapproachedbydifferentpartsoftheUNdevelopmentsystemasatooltoremainrelevantandadapttochangingfundingpatterns.SSTCsupporthas,second,alsobeenpartoftheinternalpolitico-bureaucraticdynamicswithinUNentitiesthemselves.Third,ithasincreasinglybeenasiteofmemberstategeopolitics,connectingSSTCmainstreamingeffortstobroaderquestionsaboutthefutureofthemultilateraldevelopmentsystem(seeSection3).

Intermsofmemberstatedynamics,thepapershowsthatChina’sexpandingclouthashadaparticularlyvisible–andexpanding–influenceonSSTCsupportattheUN.AcursoryviewatfundingpatternssuggeststhatthelevelofChinesefundingforagivenUNentitytendstocorrelatewiththeentity’sSSTCmainstreamingscore.FromtheperspectiveofNorthern-Westernmemberstates,inparticular,South-SouthcooperationhasbeenperceivedasanumbrellaforChinatoincreaseitsleverageattheUN.AgainstthebackdropofintensifyingtensionsbetweenChinaandtheUnitedStates,contestationscentringaroundSSTChavereachedanall-timehigh(seeSection3).

InlightofthehighlydiverseUNengagementwithSSTCtodateandthecomplexpoliticaldynamicsbehindmainstreamingefforts,thepaperdiscussesthewayaheadforUNengagementwithSSTC,includingthepotentialsandchallengesofacontinuedfocusonmainstreaming,anditprovidesbothsuggestionsforfurtherresearchaswellasrecommendationsforpolicymakers(seeSection4).Overall,SSTChashadalong,multi-faceted,expandingandincreasinglycontroversialtrajectoryattheUN.Beyondinstitutionalidiosyncrasiesandgeopoliticalrifts,thepapersuggeststhatUNentities–incoordinationwithmemberstates–arewelladvisedtoexpandtheireffortsforexploringhowtobestsupportcooperationthatunfoldsoutsidetraditionalNorth-Southassistanceschemes.

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Introduction

Sincetheturnofthemillennium,anincreasingnumberofvoicesacrossacademicandpolicycircleshavearguedthattheriseofcountriesfromtheSouthissettosignificantlyaltertheglobaldistributionofpowerandwealth(Gray&Gills,2016;UNDP[UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme],2013a).Asacrucialpartofthistrend,South-Southcooperation

–thatis,collaborationamongcountriesself-identifyingasdeveloping–hasbeenreferredtoasakeyfeatureoftheevolvinglandscapeofinternationalcooperation(Gosovic,2016;Mawdsley,2012).TheUnitedNations(UN),inparticular,hasprovidedacrucialframeworkforcoordinationamong–andcollectiveactionby–theworld’s“poorernations”(seeFukuda-Parr&Muchhala,2020;Prashad,2012).South-SouthschemeshavebeenhailedattheUNasa“centralandessential”(UN[UnitedNations],2019a)partofmultilateraleffortscontributingto“morediverseopportunitiesfordevelopment”(UNGA[UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly],2019,p.2),notablyasameansforimplementingtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)(UN-DESA,s.a.-a).TheideaofbringingwhatisnowreferredtoasSouth-SouthcooperationtothecoreofUNdevelopmentworkgoesbackmorethanfivedecades:Sincethe1960s,UNentitieshavebeenanintegralpartofSouth-Southsupportschemes.MajorpolicydocumentsonthematterhavehighlightedtheneedforUNentitiestoexpandtheirsupportforSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation(SSTC)(seeHLC-SSC[High-levelCommitteeonSouth-SouthCooperation],2016;UNGA,1978,2020a),withtriangularcooperationreferringtoSouth-Southarrangementsassistedbya“Northern”donororamultilateralbody.

Thenotionofmainstreaming,inparticular,hasbeencentraltodiscussionsaboutUNsupportforSSTC(HLC-SSC,2016;UNDP,2003;UNGA,2009).Referringtoeffortsofbringingsomethingintotheconventionalcoreofagiveninstitutionalspace,thepopularityofmainstreamingterminologyattheUNinitiallyincreasedthrougheffortstobroadenthefocusongenderequalityinthe1990s(Hafner-Burton&Pollack,2002).Inthiscontext,theUN’sEconomicandSocialCouncildefinedmainstreamingasastrategythatmakesaparticularissueorconcern“anintegraldimensionofthedesign,implementation,monitoringandevaluationofthepoliciesandprogrammesinall[…]spheres”(ECOSOC[EconomicandSocialCouncil],1997,p.2).AlthoughanumberofUNentitieshadearlyonbegunsupportingcooperationamongdevelopingcountries,fordecadesthissupportremainedintheshadowofastrongfocusonNorthern-fundedassistanceschemes,andthusunfoldedonthesidelinesofUNengagement.ItwasonlyaroundtheturnofthemillenniumthattheexpandingcloutofSouthernmemberstatesledtoanincreasedvisibilityofreferencestoUNengagementwithSouth-South–andlateralsotriangular–cooperation,andthisdiscussionquicklyintegratedthelanguageofmainstreaminginordertopushforbroaderinstitutionalengagement(UNDP,2003;UNGA,2009).TherepeatedinsistenceacrossresolutionsandreportsforUNentitiestomainstreamSSTCthusreflectsandepitomisesthebroaderintentionofmakingsupportforSouth-Southschemesafundamentalandcross-cuttingfeatureattheUN,tobeconsideredinthepreparationof“anyplannedaction,[…]inallareasandatalllevels”(seeECOSOC,1997,p.2;Hafner-Burton&Pollack,2002;UNDP,2000).

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AttheUN,mainstreaminghasalsobeenusedtopromoteacross-cuttingperspectiveonyouth-relatedissues;seeUN(2018a).

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AlthoughofficialdocumentsandframeworkshaveaskedUNentitiestoengageinSSTCmainstreamingefforts,itisuncleartowhatextentandhowmainstreaminghasactuallytakenplace.Moregenerally,therehasbeenlittlesystematicanalysisonwhatthebroaderSSTClandscapelookslikeacrosstheUN,andhowUNengagementwithSSTChasevolvedoverthelastdecades.AvailableinformationonSSTCattheUNhasusuallytakentheformofaspirationalpoliciesorthedescriptivepresentationofexemplaryinitiativespreparedbyUNentitiesthemselves.Withintheexpandingcontoursofscholarlydiscussionsaboutthe“risingSouth”(UNDP,2013c)attheUN,

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thefocusofthedebatehasoftenbeendirectedathowindividualSouthernstatesvoteattheUNGeneralAssembly(Dijkhuizen&Onderco,2019;Ferdinand,2014;Seabra&Sanches,2019),orwhetherandhowtheUNdevelopmentsystemhasdealtwiththechanginglandscapeofpowerandwealth(Abdenur,2014;Baumann,2018a;Browne,2014;Esteves&Assunção,2014;Toye,2014;Weinlich,2014;Weiss&Abdenur,2014;Weiss&Roy,2016).AlthoughthislatterstrandoftheliteraturehasrepeatedlymentionedSouth-South(andlessoftentriangular)cooperationinpassing(seenotablyWeinlich,2014,pp.1834-1836),UNengagementwithSSTC,assuch–letaloneUNmainstreamingefforts–havebeenallbutabsentfromthedebate.Thehandfulofexistingcontributions(Haug,2016;Milhorance&Soule-Kohndou,2017;Zhou,2013)providelimitedselectionsofcasestudiescoveringindividualinitiativeswithlittleinsightintobroaderdynamics.

ThisnotonlyhighlightsagapintheempiricalknowledgeaboutinstitutionalprocessesattheUN,butalsopointstolargerquestionsaboutwhetherandhowthealleged“riseoftheSouth”(UNDP,2013a)hasreshapedmultilateraldevelopmentpractices.Giventhedecades-longinsistenceon–andthedearthof–systematicinformationaboutUNengagementwithSSTC,thispaperexaminestowhatextent,andhow,SSTCsupporthasbeenmainstreamedattheUN.InsteadofdelvingintothegrowingnumberofprojectsandinitiativesthathavebeenlistedasexamplesofUNsupportforSSTC,IfocusonorganisationaleffortsbyUNentitiestomakeSSTCanintegralcomponentoftheirinstitutionalsetupinordertoprovideaframeworkforcoordinatedoperationalengagement.ThefocusonSSTCmainstreamingnotonlytakesuparecurringandemblematicfeatureofdebatesaboutUNengagement,butalsoenablesasystematicanalysisofSouth-South-relateddynamicsthat,asdiscussedbelow,areoftendifficulttograspconceptually.Thecombinationofareviewofsecondaryliterature,adetailedexaminationofofficialUNdocumentationaswellasinsightsfrom30interviewswithUNofficialsandobserversallowsforadetailedanalysisofpreviouslyunavailableinformation.

Section1focusesonterminologyanddefinitions.BasedonadetailedreviewofhowSSTC-relatedterminologyhasevolved,itdiscussesdifferentunderstandingsofandapproachestoSSTCand,asafoundationfordiscussingmainstreamingefforts,showswhatSSTChascometomeanattheUNinpractice.Section2providesanoverviewofhowtheUNhasbeensupposedtoengagewithSSTCanddiscussestheextenttowhichSSTChasactuallybeenmainstreamedacrossUNentities.Thisisdonebasedonascorecardthatranks15UNentitieswithreferencetoadetailedmappingoftheirSSTCengagementacrossstrategies,reports,monitoringframeworks,budgetsandorganisationalsetup.Iprovideanoverviewofboththediversityofinstitutionalrealitiesaswellasunderlyingpatternsthataretakenasa

ForgeneraldiscussionsincludingafocusontheUN,seeAlden,MorphetandVieira(2010),Braveboy-Wagner(2009)andPrashad(2012).

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basisfortentativelylabellingUNentitiesasSSTC“stragglers”,“waverers”or“champions”.InSection3,keydynamicsthathaveaccompaniedmainstreamingeffortstakecentrestage,rangingfrominternalstrategiesanddynamicsattheUNtotheriseofgeopoliticaltensionsamongmemberstates,withaspecificfocusondynamicscentringaround(mostlyNorthern/Westernwarinessabout)China’sexpandingengagement.Inconclusion,Section4discussesthewayaheadforUNengagementwithSSTC,includingthepotentialsandchallengesofacontinuedfocusonmainstreaming,anditprovidesbothsuggestionsforfurtherresearchaswellasrecommendationsforpolicy-makers.

Whatistobemainstreamed?TerminologicaltrajectoryanddefinitionsofSouth-Southandtriangularcooperation

DuringthefirstdecadesfollowingthesetupoftheUNin1945,debatesaboutthestandingandvoiceofnewlyindependentcountriesincreasedsubstantiallyinmultilateralfora.Withreferencetotheprinciplesespousedatthe1955Africa-AsiaconferenceinthecityofBandung(Appadorai,1955;Shimazu,2014)–includingnotonlyinter-stateequality,non-interventionandmutualcooperation,butalsoanexplicitcommitmenttotheUNanditscharter

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–agrowingnumberofstatesacrossAsia,AfricaandLatinAmericaadvocatedfortheexpansionofspacefortheirconcerns,notablywithregardtoeconomicdevelopment.Theirexpectationsandconcernsweresoontranslatedintoinstitutionalarrangements:The1961creationoftheNon-AlignedMovementwasfollowedbyactionstakenwithintheUN,notablytheestablishmentin1964oftheUNConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)withapermanentsecretariatandtheGroupof77(G77)astheUNallianceofdevelopingcountries(Munro,s.a.;Toye,2014;UNCTAD,s.a.-a).Allthesegroupingswerestronglycommittedtowhatwassummarisedunderthebanneroftechnicalcooperationamongdevelopingcountries(TCDC),definedas“aprocesswherebytwoormoredevelopingcountriespursuetheirindividualorcollectivedevelopmentthroughcooperativeexchangesofknowledge,skills,resourcesandtechnicalknow-how”(UNOSSC[UnitedNationsOfficeforSouth-SouthCooperation],s.a.-a).

The1978BuenosAiresPlanofAction(BAPA),endorsedbytheUNGeneralAssembly,providedthefirstcomprehensivepolicyframeworkforTCDC.Theacronymcametobeemployedasashorthandforattemptstoexpandsupportforinteractionamongrecentlydecolonisedcountriesandothermoremarginalisedplayersinthemultilateralsphere,thenoftencollectivelyreferredtoinColdWartermsasthe“ThirdWorld”(seeAyoob,1989;Escobar,1995).

HowdidthenotionofSouth-Southcooperation,then,enterthedebate?UNdocumentsgoingbacktothe1960ssuggestthatthe“South”,assuch,wasinitiallyallbutabsentfromUNprocesses.EarlyUNCTADreportsshowthatitwasrepresentativesfromLatinAmericancountries–notablyBrazilandChile–whooccasionallyusedNorth-Southterminologytorefertoglobalinequities(UNCTAD,1968,pp.84and95).ThereportsalsoshowthatofficialsfromcountriesbelongingtotheSovietbloc–suchasRussiaandHungary

–explicitlyarguedagainstthenotionsof“therichNorthandthepoorSouth”andinstead

TheseprinciplesbuiltontheFivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistenceagreeduponbyIndiaandChinain1954;see“The10PrinciplesofBandung”(2016)andUSStateDepartment(s.a.).

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highlightedthepolitical-ideologicaldimensionsofglobalinequality(UNCTAD,1968,pp.61,88,and117;UNCTAD,1976,p.72).

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Itwasinthe1970sand1980sthatthedichotomyofNorthandSouthemergedasamorevisiblereiterationoflong-standingbinaries–fromorient/occidentandold/newworldstoFirst/Thirdworlds–usedforglobalmeaningmaking(seeUNCTAD,1985;Wagner,2017).

1.1 TheexpansionofSouth-Southterminology

TheframingofdiscussionsbetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountriesalongNorth-SouthlinesexpandedwiththeConferenceonInternationalEconomicCooperation(1975-1977)heldinParis.Itselfreferredtoasthe“North-Southdialogue”(CentreforEconomicPolicyResearch,2004;OverseasDevelopmentInstitute,1976;UNCTAD,1976;Williams,1981),theconferencecoveredoil-relatedquestionslinkedtothegrowingcloutoftheOrganisationofthePetroleumExportingCountriesalongsideabroaderrangeofmostlyeconomicissuesandhighlightedfundamentalfaultlinesinthemultilateralsphere.Despiteempiricalcomplexity,the“so-calledNorthandtheso-calledSouth”,astheUNCTADchairmanp