2023年全球慈善追踪完整报告（英）

GlobalPhilanthropyTracker

2023ContentsTables

andFiguresIntroduction0102040608KeyFindingsSuggestionsWhatDoestheReportMeasure?DatainContext:SettingtheStage1214SpotlightonGivingtoUkrainePartI:Total

Cross-BorderResourceFlowsATotal

Cross-BorderResourceFlows202026B.OfficialandPrivateForeign

AssistancePartII:Cross-BorderPhilanthropy283033363839424346A.LegalEnvironmentforCross-BorderPhilanthropyB.PhilanthropicOutflowsbyDonorCountries’

IncomeLevelC.UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoalsDCross-BorderPhilanthropybyCharitableCausesSpotlightonGlobalPhilanthropicResponsestowardstheFightagainsttheCOVID-19PandemicERecipientsofCross-BorderPhilanthropybyRegionSpotlightonCross-BorderPhilanthropyandClimateChangeF

Cross-Border

VolunteeringPartIIIOtherCross-BorderResourceFlowsA.OfficialDevelopment

AssistanceB.Remittances5252555962SpotlightonDiasporaPhilanthropyC.PrivateCapitalInvestmentLooking

AheadMethodologyReferences64666876AcknowledgmentsTables

andFiguresFiguresFigure1.

Total

cross-borderresourcesfrom47countriesbyflow,

2020(inbillionsofinflation-adjusted2020USdollars)20Figure2.

Total

cross-borderprivateresourceflows(philanthropicoutflows,remittances,andprivatecapitalinvestment),comparedwithofficialdevelopmentassistance,1991–2020(inbillionsofcurrentUSdollars)2223242526272833343552545657Figure3.

Total

cross-borderresourcesbyflow,

1991–2020(inbillionsofcurrentUSdollars)Figure4.

Total

cross-borderresourcesbyflowandbycountry,2020(inmillionsofinflation-adjusted2020USdollars)Figure5.

Total

cross-borderresourcesasapercentageofgrossnationalincomebyflowandbycountry,

2020Figure6.Officialandprivateforeignassistancebycountry,

2020(inmillionsofinflation-adjusted2020USdollars)Figure7.Officialandprivateforeignassistanceasapercentageofgrossnationalincomebycountry,

2020Figure8.Philanthropicoutflowsasapercentageofgrossnationalincomein47countries,2020Figure9.Philanthropicoutflowsfromlow-incomeandlower-middleincomecountries,2020Figure10.Philanthropicoutflowsfromupper-middleincomecountries,2020Figure11.

Philanthropicoutflowsfromhigh-incomecountries,2020Figure12.Netofficialdevelopmentassistancebycountry,

2020(inmillionsofinflation-adjusted2020USdollars)Figure13.Netofficialdevelopmentassistanceasashareofgrossnationalincomebycountry,

2020Figure14.Remittanceoutflowstoallcountriesbysendingcountry,

2020(inmillionsofUSdollars)Figure15.Remittanceoutflowstoallcountriesasapercentageofgrossnationalincomebysendingcountry,

2020Figure16.Remittanceoutflowstolow-andmiddle-incomecountriesbytop10sendingcountriesacrossincomegroups,2020(inmillionsofUSdollars)58Figure17.Remittanceoutflowstolow-andmiddle-incomecountriesasapercentageofgrossnationalincomebytop10sendingcountriesacrossincomegroups,2020586263Figure18.Privatecapitalflowsbycountry,2020(inmillionsofUSdollars)Figure19.Privatecapitalflowsasapercentageofgrossnationalincomebycountry,

2020TablesTable

1.

World

Bankcountryincomeclassification,20201011Table

2.Basicfactsofcountriescoveredinthe2023GPT,

2020Table

3.

Total

cross-borderresourcesfrom47countriesbyflow,

2018and2020(inbillionsofinflation-adjusted2020USdollars)22384247Table

4.Dataoncross-borderphilanthropicoutflowsbytopcharitablecauseTable

5.Dataoncross-borderphilanthropicoutflowsbytoprecipientregionTable

6.Dataavailabilityoncross-bordervolunteeringbycountryG

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1IntroductionTheGlobalPhilanthropy

Tracker

(GPT)

isa

first-of-its-kindresearchefforttomeasurecross-borderdonationsfromindividuals

and

organizations

around

theworld.

The

2023

GPT,

the11theditionoftheindex,

bridges

thegap

between

an

increasing

needforphilanthropy

and

thelackof

knowledgeaboutthescope

ofcross-bordergiving.

Findings

presented

in

this

reportarebased

on

philanthropicoutflowsfrom47

countries

in2020,or

themostrecently

availableyear,

as

wellas

threeexternally

tracked

resourceflows:

official

developmentassistance(ODA),remittances,

and

privatecapitalinvestment(PCI).By

reportingontheseflows,the

GPTdemonstrates

how

civilsocieties,

governments,businesses,and

individuals

collaboratetoaddress

societalissuesaround

theglobeThe47countriesincludedinthereportcontributedUSD70billioninphilanthropicoutflowsin2020,showingthatdespitethenegativeeconomic,health,andsocialconsequencesoftheCOVID-19pandemic,philanthropywasa

resilientcross-borderresourceflow

Theothertwoprivatecross-borderresourceflowsweremorealteredbyglobalcrises.Specifically,

whileremittancessawa

large

increasein2020asmigrantssentmoremoneybackhometosupporttheirfamiliesduringthepandemic,PCIsuffered

froma

severedeclineastheglobaleconomywashithardfromnearly680,000individualsandorganizations

aroundtheworldbetweenMarch2020andDecember2021(WHO,2021).Philanthropyservesasaninnovator,promoter,andcross-sectorcollaboratoratthelocalandgloballevel,yetthefindingsofthe2023GPTindicatethatthereareavenuesforimprovement.Basedonthefindingsofthisreport,the2023GPTsuggests:theenhancementoflocalphilanthropicecosystemsthroughregionalcollaborations,theestablishmentofmechanismstomobilizelocalphilanthropy

inaddressing

globalchallenges,andthedevelopmentofinternationalstandardsfor

datatrackingandthepromotionofdatatransparencyonspecificissueareas,especiallyclimateandracialjustice.Leveragingthe

lessons

from

2020

will

determine

the

success

of

our

responsestocurrentandfutureglobalissuesTheglobalchallengesof2020,fromsocialinjusticetotheCOVID-19pandemicandclimatedisasters,putthephilanthropicsectortothetestandprovidedanopportunitytoreconceptualizetheroleofphilanthropyinforeignaidandsustainabledevelopment.Forexample,thehealthcrisisinspiredgenerosityworldwideaspeoplemobilizedtohelpothersinneed.

Technology-enabled

formsofgivinglikecrowdfunding,cryptodonations,andmobilegivingoffered

instantandcontact-freewaysforpeopletosupportothersdespitelockdowns(IndianaUniversityLillyFamilySchoolofPhilanthropy,

2022).Internationalorganizationsinitiatedfundstocombatthepandemic,suchastheWorld

HealthOrganization’s

(WHO)COVID-19SolidarityResponse

Fund,whichraisedoverUSD256million0

2Key

FindingsThe47countriescoveredin

the

2023GPThave

varyinglevelsofeconomic

developmentandrepresenteveryworldregion.

Together,

they

accountedfor22

percentofallcountries

and

economies

worldwide,61percentoftheglobalpopulation,and85percentofglobalgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)in2020.47

countriesatallstages

ofeconomic

developmentUSD

70

billionincross-borderphilanthropic

outflows

in20208

percentof

worldwide

cross-border

resourcesCountries

includedinthe2023

Global

Philanthropy

TrackerCompared

with2018,

thetotal

amountof

thefour

cross-border

resource

flows

fromthe47

countries

declinedslightlyby

2

percent

in2020.-1%-0.5%PhilanthropicOutflows-100%Private

CapitalInvestment+19%RemittancesOfficialDevelopmentAssistance

(ODA)THE

L

ANDSCAPE

OF

CROSS-BORDER

PHIL

ANTHROPICOUTFLOWS

AMONG

47

COUNTRIES2.In2020,ofthe47countries,thefiveinthelow-incomeandlower-middle

incomegroupsdonateda

totalofUSD42milliontoothercountries(seeFigure9);the10upper-middle

incomecountriescontributedaroundUSD644million(seeFigure10);andthe32high-incomecountriescontributednearlyUSD70billion(seeFigure11)ofcross-borderphilanthropy1.In2020,these47countriescontributedUSD70billioninphilanthropicoutflows,1

andUSD841billionwhenaddingtogether

all

four

cross-border

resource

flows—philanthropicoutflowsaswellasODA,individualremittances,andPCI(seeFigure1).Philanthropicoutflowsrepresent8

percentofthetotalcross-borderresources1Thedataonphilanthropicoutflowsfromthe47countriesincludedinthisreportvaryintermsofdataquality.Thedatadiscussedinthisreport,therefore,mayunderestimatethetruescopeofphilanthropicoutflowsinsomecases.0

4CHANGES

IN

PHIL

ANTHROPIC

OUTFLOWS

SINCE

2018C

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Thecombinedlevelofcross-borderphilanthropicoutflowsandtheotherthreeresourceflowsfromthe47countriesdeclinedslightlyby2

percentwhenadjustedforinflation,fromUSD859billion2

in2018toUSD841billionin2020(seeTable

3).4.Educationandhealthremainedthetoptwomostsupportedcharitablecauses,asin2018,eachreceivingcross-borderdonationsfrom9countriesin2020,basedonasubgroupof14countrieswithavailabledata.

ThesecausesdirectlyalignwithUNSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)4

and3

(QualityEducationandGlobalHealthand

Well-Being,respectively).MostcountrieswithavailabledatadidnotdetailhowtheircausesalignedwiththeSDGs,andonlya

portionofthosecausescouldbecategorizedwithintheSDGframework.•

Philanthropyprovedtoberesilientduringtheyear2020,withonlya

smalldeclineof0.5percentfromUSD71billionin2018.

About60percentofthe47countrieshadupdateddatathataredirectlycomparabletotheamountin2018.

Amongthissubgroupofcountries,philanthropicoutflowswentupmodestlybyaround4

percent,thoughthechangevariedgreatlybycountry5.Africawastheregioncitedmostfrequentlyasa

toprecipientofphilanthropicsupport,accordingtocountriesthatreporteddataon

this

matter.

Among

the

subgroup

of

countries

that

reported

dataonrecipientcountriesorregions,15cited

Africa,9

cited

Asia,and9

citedEurope.Comparedwith2018,

Africa

and

Asia

remainedthetoptworegionssupportedbycross-borderphilanthropy,

whilethenumberofcountriesthatgavetoEuropeincreasedin2020.•

ODA

remainedata

similarlevelin2018and2020,droppingbyonly1

percent•

Remittancessawthelargest

increaseandremainedthelargestflow,

growingby19percentbetween2018and2020,fromUSD496billiontoUSD590billion.

Thiscanbeattributedtotheircounter-cyclical

nature,tostimuluspackagesfromhost-countrygovernmentsleadingtofavorableeconomicconditions,aswellastomovementstowarddigitalandformalwaysofmoneytransferthatcouldbetrackedbygovernmentsduetoCOVID-19restrictionswhichincreasedthevisibilityofpreviouslyun-trackedremittances,andfluctuationsinoilpricesandexchangesrates(Kpodaretal.,2022).T

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Y6.

Technological

innovationsandinnovativewaysofgivinghavethepotentialtorevolutionizecross-borderphilanthropy.

The

proliferationof

emerging

giving

vehicles,

such

as

crowdfunding,

crypto

donations,andcollaborativeglobalfundshavefacilitatedandacceleratedbothlocalandglobalphilanthropyduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.7.

Thefindingsemphasizetheneedforincreasedcollaborationbetweencountries,sectors,andphilanthropicactors,andhighlighttheimportanceofimproveddatacollectiononnewareasofgiving,a

betterreportingstructuretocapturegivingthatsupportstheSDGs,andmoreintentionaldatatrackingefforts

toenhancediversity,

equity,

andinclusioninglobalgiving.•

PCIshoweda

drasticdeclinefromUSD112

billionin2018toUSD0.4billionin2020.

Thisisduetothecombinedeffects

oftheglobaleconomicrecession,a

depreciationinthevalueofinvestments,andreducedlevelsofforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)onprivatecapitalflows(UNCTAD,

2021).8.Cross-borderphilanthropycanbebolsteredbyhighlightingandutilizingtheexpertiseanddedicationofdiasporacommunitieswho,especiallyduringtimesofcrisis,rallyandprovidetargetedandinformedphilanthropicrelieftotheirhomecountries.TABLE

3.

TOTAL

CROSS-BORDER

RESOURCES

FROM

47

COUNTRIES

BY

FLOW,

2018

AND

2020

(in

billions

of

inflation-adjusted

2020

US

dollars)FinancialFlowsfrom47Countries20202018%

Changefrom2018to2020R

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92Inthisreport,allcurrencieswereadjustedinto2020USDvalues.G

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5SuggestionsThe2023GPTidentifiesthreeopportunitiesfortheinternationalcommunitytobolstertheroleofphilanthropyinsustainabledevelopment.Byleveragingthelessonslearned,leaderscanrespondappropriatelytocurrentandfuturechallengesEnhance

Local•

Althoughthenon-discriminatoryprincipleshouldallowcross-borderphilanthropyintheEuropeanUnion(EU)(EuropeanUnion,2017),thecomparabilityproceduresanddifferent

taxregulationsimplementedbyeachmemberstateshavehistoricallyhinderedcross-borderphilanthropyamongthe27memberstates.Inordertofacilitatecross-bordergiving,the

Transnational

GivingEuropenetworkprovidessolutionsfortax-effectivecross-bordercashdonationsin19Europeancountries(TransnationalGivingEurope,2023).Since2021,thePhilanthropyEuropeAssociation(Philea)nurturesthephilanthropicecosysteminover30Europeancountriesbyknowledgesharing,networking,andadvocacywork(Philea,2023).Philanthropic

EcosystemsThrough

RegionalCollaborationsTheincreasingnumberofnaturalandhuman-madedisastershighlightstheneedforanimprovedecosystemforcross-borderphilanthropy,especiallythroughlocalgrassrootsorganizationsandtheirleadership,whichareoftenthefirstrespondersintimesofcrisis.With

regionalcollaborations,philanthropicorganizations3

havethepotentialtoadvancethelocalandglobalphilanthropicecosystemwithknowledgesharing,localcapacitybuilding,andadvocacywork.

Theseorganizationscouldalsofacilitatetheconnectionsandcommunicationbetweeninternationaldonorsandlocalphilanthropicorganizationstoenhanceequityandculturalawarenessincross-borderphilanthropy.

Numerous

regional

and

international

collaborationscanserveasexamplesforgoodpractices,someofwhicharehighlightedbelowTheincreasingnumberofnaturalandman-madedisastersandcriseshighlightstheneedforanimprovedecosystemforcross-borderphilanthropyandtheenhancementoflocalphilanthropicorganizations.

Regionalcollaborationshavethepotentialtostrengthenthelocalandglobalphilanthropicecosystemwithknowledgesharing,localcapacitybuilding,andadvocacywork.Someoftheseorganizations

couldalsosupportdonorsnavigatetheregulatoryandadministrativerequirementsofforeigndonationsbyprovidingofficialguidelinesandalternativechannelsforcross-bordergiving.Theseorganizations

couldalsoenhanceequityincross-borderphilanthropybyfacilitatingtheconnectionsandcommunicationbetweeninternationaldonorsandlocalphilanthropicorganizations.

Allthesestepsarenecessarytocreateamoreeffectiveenvironmentforandenhanceequityincross-borderphilanthropy•

Inthe

Asia-Pacificregion,severalregional-levelcentersandnonprofitassociations,suchastheCentrefor

AsianPhilanthropyandSocietyandthe

AsiaPhilanthropyCircle,aimtoenhancethephilanthropicenvironmentintheregion,includingcross-bordergiving.

Thereporton

UnlockingCross-border

Philanthropy

in

Asia

publishedbyGive2Asia

highlights

that

it

is

crucial

to

create

a

more

cohesiveecosystemforcross-borderphilanthropyinthisregionbycultivatinga

regionallyfocusedgivingmindset,establishingtrustworthyintermediaryorganizations,

andadvocatingforanenablingenvironmentforcross-borderphilanthropy,whichwouldcreatea

morecohesiveecosystemforcross-borderphilanthropy(Tran&

Thai,2022).3“ThetermPhilanthropicOrganization(PO)referstoaformofnon-market,non-stateorganizationsoutsideofthefamilythatprovideservicesforthepublicgood.Itincludesthefollowing:foundations(grant-making,operating,corporate,community,

orgovernmentsponsored/created),

community-basedorganizationsandvillageassociations,professionalassociations,

environmental

groups,

advocacygroups,

co-operatives,

charitableorganizations,

faith-based

organizations,

mutualentities,

labor

unions,

societies,

researchinstitutes,diasporicorganizations,onlinesocial-purposeportals,transnationalandcross-sectoralcoalitions,andothertypesofnon-governmentalorganizationsthatare

relevantina

givencountry.”0

6EstablishMechanismsto

Mobilize

LocalPhilanthropyin

AddressingGlobal

ChallengesBasedona

scanof81countriesandeconomies,thisreportsharesdataoncross-bordergivingfrom47countrieswhereitwaspossibletogetbasicestimatesoncross-borderphilanthropy,

andonly14countrieshadavailabledataoncross-bordergivingbycharitablecause.•

Thereisa

generallackofdataoncross-bordergivingtospecificcauses(e.g.,climatechange,racialinjustice).Capturingthemagnitudeofgivingtotheserelativelynewandemerging

causesisstillchallenging,butseveralresearchcentersanddataprovidershavealreadystartedrevisingtheirmethodologiestofocusoncollectingandprovidingsuchdatatothepublic(Candid,n.d.;ClimateWorks

Foundation,2022;PhilanthropicInitiativeforRacialEquity,

2019).DuringtheCOVID-19pandemic,severalinnovativeinitiativesproactivelycultivateda

moreenablingenvironmentwhentraditionalchannelsofsendingandreceivingcross-borderphilanthropybecamemorechallenging,a

findingthatisreinforcedinthe2022GlobalPhilanthropyEnvironmentIndex(IndianaUniversityLillyfamilySchoolofPhilanthropy,

2022).4•

DuringthebeginningoftheCOVID-19pandemic,individualdonorswereunabletosupporttheglobalworkoftheWorld

HealthOrganization(WHO).

Thus,inpartnershipwiththeUnitedNationsFoundationandtheSwissPhilanthropyFoundation,

WHOestablishedtheCOVID-19SolidarityResponse

Fund

to

raise

funds

from

individuals,

companies,andphilanthropiesacrosstheworldforthefirsttimeinitshistory(WHO,2020).

Thisinitiativenotonlyhelpedraisefundsfortheglobalworkof

WHObutalsoraisedawarenessoftheimportanceofpossiblenewwaysofglobalgiving.•

DataongivingtotheSDGsisalsoscarce,leadingtolimitedinformationonphilanthropiccontributionstodevelopment.To

facilitatetheusageoftheSDGlanguageandencourageSDGdatacollectionandreportingforphilanthropicorganizations,

theSDGPhilanthropyPlatformcreatedthe“SDGIndicator

Wizard”

totranslateandalignanorganization’s

achievementsandgoalsintothelanguageoftheSDGs.Recently,severalinternationalorganizationsanddataprovidershaveaimedtoprovidebetterinformationongivingtotheSDGsattheregionalandgloballevels(SDGFunders,n.d.;

ArabFoundationsForum,2023;East

AfricaPhilanthropyNetwork,2022).Philanthropicorganizations

couldimplementnovelwaysofgivingtoreinforcelocalphilanthropyandprovidemoreequitable,localizedfunding.

Additionally,local,regional,andglobalphilanthropicactorscouldsupportdonorsnavigatingtheregulatoryandadministrativerequirementsofforeigndonationsbyprovidingofficialguidelinesandbestpracticesforcross-bordergiving.Thissignificantlackofpublicdatapresentsanongoingchallengetofullyunderstandingthepatternsandtrendsofcross-bordergenerosity.

Italsolimitsourunderstandingoftherolethatphilanthropyplaysglobally,

especiallyduringglobalcrisesliketheCOVID-19pandemic,whenallsectorsarecalledupontorespond.Promotingdatasharingand

transparency,

building

infrastructure

for

systematic

datacollection,andestablishinginternationalstandardsfordatareportingcouldhelpimprovedataavailabilityandqualityinthelongtermandsupportindividualandinstitutionaldonorstomakeinformed,data-drivendecisions.Develop

InternationalStandards

for

DataTracking

andPromoteData

TransparencyThereisa

dearthofdataoncross-bordergivingtospecificcauses,suchasgivingtofightclimatechangeorracialinjusticeandinequity.

Concernsrelatedtoclimatechangehavebecomeincreasinglyrelevantandnecessaryinthepastfewdecades,andracialjusticeandracialequityarelong-standingglobalconcerns,causedbypervasiveandsystemicracism,colonialism,andxenophobia.4PublishedbytheIndianaUniversityLillyFamilySchoolofPhilanthropy,

theGlobalPhilanthropyEnvironment

Indexexaminestheenablingenvironment

forphilanthropywithina

countryandacross

countries.Formore

information,visit/index.html.G

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7WhatDoestheReportMeasure?TheGlobalPhilanthropyTracker

(GPT)

measurestheextentofglobalcross-borderphilanthropicoutflowsof47countries.Byfocusingonallcross-borderphilanthropy—notjustphilanthropyfordevelopmentpurposes—itoffersa

holisticviewofthephilanthropicoutflows.Itfurthercomparescross-borderphilanthropytothreeotherresourceflows:ODA,remittances,

andPCI.Thissectionprovidesa

definitionofthesefourresourcesflowsaswellasanoverviewofthe47countriesP

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SThisbroaddefinitioncoversassistancetomanyareas,suchaseconomicinfrastructure,governmentandcivilsociety,andwatersupplyandsanitation,aswellashumanitarianaid.Nuclearenergy

isalsoreportableasODA

ifitisforcivilianpurposes,andculturalprogramsalsocountiftheyincreasetheculturalcapacityoftherecipientcountries.However,

thecurrentODAguidelines

excludemoneyintheformofmilitaryaid,peacekeepingexpenditures,aswellasdealswithprimarilycommercialobjectives.

ThestatisticsonODA

publishedbytheOECDarealsothesoleverified,officialnumbersforthe31DACmembersandthe80additionalprovidersofaid,includingnon-DACcountriesandorganizations

(OECD,n.d.-a).Theconceptof‘philanthropy’

hasevolvedovertimeandvariesacrosscultures,buttodayitisgenerallyseenasusinganytypeofprivateresources,suchasmoney,

time,specifictalents,andcollectiveaction,forthepublicgood(Phillips&

Jung,2016).Philanthropicoutflowsreferto:a)thesumofcharitablefinancialcontributionssentbydonorswhenthedonor(individuals,corporations,foundations,orothergrantmakingorganizations)

andthebeneficiary(individuals,philanthropicorganizations,

orintermediaryorganizations)arelocatedindifferent

countries;orb)givingwithinacountrytodomesticphilanthropicorganizations

thatfocusonbroadcategoriesofinternationalcauses,suchasforeignaffairs,

humanitarianassistance,internationalrelations,promotionofinternationalunderstanding,andinternationalsolidarityR

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for

economic

development

around

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globe,

remittancesaretransfersofmoneythattakeplacewhenindividualssenda

partoftheirearningstotheirfamilies,friends,andrelativesintheirhomecountry(Kretchmer,

2020).

Theycantaketheformofeithercashorgoods.

Typically,

thesender“paystheremittancetothesendingagentusingcash,check,moneyorder,creditcard,debitcard,oradebitinstructionsentthroughemail,phoneortheInternet.

Thesendingagencyinstructsitsagentintherecipient’s

countrytodelivertheremittance.

Thepayingagentmakesthepaymenttotheaddressedbeneficiary”(Ratha,2020).IndianaUniversityLillyFamilySchoolofPhilanthropy,

2020GlobalPhilanthropy

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EOfficialDevelopment

Assistance(ODA)isgovernmentaidthat“promotesandspecificallytargets

theeconomicdevelopmentandwelfareofdevelopingcountries”(OECD,n.d.-b).

TheOrganisation

forEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)definitionincludes:IndianaUniversityLillyFamilySchoolofPhilanthropy,

2020GlobalPhilanthropy

Tracker[F]lowstocountriesandterritoriesontheDAC[DevelopmentAssistanceCommittee]ListofODA

Recipientsandtomultilateraldevelopmentinstitutionswhichare

providedbyofficialagencies,includingstateandlocalgovernments,orbytheirexecutiveagencies…andeachtransactionofwhichisadministeredwiththepromotionoftheeconomicdevelopmentandwelfareofdevelopingcountriesasitsmainobjective;andisconcessionalincharacter(OECD,n.d.-a).Remittanceshavea

negativecyclicalpositionwiththe