全市重大招商活动签约项目进展情况课件

SecondLanguageAcquisitionPreparedBy:Dr.EmmaAliciaGarzaAssistantProfessorTexasA&MUniversity-Kingsville天天影视httpwww.365vod.ccWhatisSecond

LanguageAcquisition?

Insecondlanguagelearning,languageplaysaninstitutionalandsocialroleinthecommunity.Itfunctionsasarecognizedmeansofcommunicationamongmemberswhospeaksomeotherlanguageastheirnativetongue.Inforeignlanguagelearning,languageplaysnomajorroleinthecommunityandisprimarilylearnedintheclassroom.

Thedistinctionbetweensecondandforeignlanguagelearningiswhatislearnedandhowitislearned.WhatistheStudyofSecondLanguageAcquisition?

Itisthestudyof:howsecondlanguagesarelearned;howlearnerscreateanewlanguagesystemwithlimitedexposuretoasecondlanguage;whymostsecondlanguagelearnersdonotachievethesamedegreeofproficiencyinasecondlanguageastheydointheirnativelanguage;andwhysomelearnersappeartoachievenative-likeproficiencyinmorethanonelanguage.HowDoLearnersAcquireaSecondLanguage?Learnersacquireasecondlanguagebymakinguseofexistingknowledgeofthenativelanguage,generallearningstrategies,oruniversalpropertiesoflanguagetointernalizeknowledgeofthesecondlanguage.Theseprocessesserveasameansbywhichthelearnerconstructsaninterlanguage(atransitionalsystemreflectingthelearner’scurrentL2knowledge).Communicationstrategiesareemployedbythelearnertomakeuseofexistingknowledgetocopewithcommunicationdifficulties.TheLanguageLearnerIndividualdifferencesaffectL2acquisition.Thesemayinclude:(1)therateofdevelopmentand(2)theirultimatelevelofachievement.Learnersdifferwithregardtovariablesrelatingtocognitive,affectiveandsocialaspectsofahumanbeing.Fixedfactorssuchasageandlanguagelearningaptitudearebeyondexternalcontrol.VariablefactorssuchasmotivationareinfluencedbyexternalfactorssuchassocialsettingandbytheactualcourseofL2development.Cognitivestylereferstothewaypeopleperceive,conceptualize,organizeandrecallinformation.Fielddependentlearnersoperateholistically.Theyliketoworkwithothers.Fieldindependentlearnersareanalyticandprefertoworkalone.LearnerStrategiesLearnerstrategiesaredefinedasdeliberatebehaviorsoractionsthatlearnersusetomakelanguagelearningmoresuccessful,self-directedandenjoyable.Cognitivestrategiesrelatenewconceptstopriorknowledge.MetacognitivestrategiesarethosewhichhelpwithorganizingapersonaltimetabletofacilitateaneffectivestudyoftheL2.Socialstrategiesincludelookingforopportunitiestoconversewithnativespeakers.NaturalOrderofStrategiesofSecondLanguageDevelopmentChesterfield&Chesterfield(1985)identifiedanaturalorderofstrategiesinthedevelopmentofasecondlanguage.

1) repetition(imitatingawordorstructure); 2) memorization(recallingsongs,rhymesorsequencesbyrote); 3) formulaicexpressions(wordsorphrasesthatfunctionasunitsi.e.greetings); 4) verbalattentiongetters(languagethatinitiatesinteraction); 5) answeringinunison(respondingwithothers); 6) talkingtoself(engagingininternalmonologue); 7) elaboration(informationbeyondwhatisnecessary); 8) anticipatoryanswers(completinganother’sphraseorstatement); 9) monitoring(self-correctingerrors);10) appealforassistance(askingsomeoneforhelp);11) requestforclarification(askingthespeakertoexplainorrepeat);and12) role-playing(interactingwithanotherbytakingonroles).StrategiesTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition

UniversalistTheorydefineslinguisticuniversalsfromtwoperspectives:Thedata-drivenperspectivewhichlooksatsurfacefeaturesofawide-rangeoflanguagestofindouthowlanguagesvaryandwhatprinciplesunderliethisvariation.Thedata-drivenapproachconsiderssystemexternalfactorsorinputasthebasis.

Thetheory-drivenperspectivewhichlooksatin-depthanalysisofthepropertiesoflanguagetodeterminehighlyabstractprinciplesofgrammar.Systeminternalfactorsarethosefoundincognitiveandlinguisticprocesses.TheoryUniversalistTheory

(Continued)SeveralCharacteristicsofthedata-drivenapproachincludethefollowing:Ithaslanguagetypologywhichdelvesintopatternswhichexistamonglanguagesandhowtheyvaryinhumanlanguages.Languageuniversalsfocusonwhatiscommon.Forexample,subject/verb/object.Implicationaluniversalswhichrefertothepropertiesoflanguagesuchas“alllanguageshavevowels”withoutlookingatanyotherproperties.SeveralCharacteristicsofthetheory-drivenapproachincludethefollowing:Languageisacquiredthroughinnateness.Certainprinciplesofthehumanmindarebiologicallydetermined.Therearesetsofprinciplesandconditionswhereknowledgeoflanguagedevelops.Universalgrammarisseenaspartofthebrain.Theory

TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)BehavioristTheorydominatedbothpsychologyandlinguisticsinthe1950’s.Thistheorysuggeststhatexternalstimuli(extrinsic)canelicitaninternalresponsewhichinturncanelicitaninternalstimuli(intrinsic)thatleadtoexternalresponses.ThelearningprocesshasbeendescribedbyS-R-Rtheoristsasaprocessformingstimulus-response-rewardchains.Thesechainscomeaboutbecauseofthenatureoftheenvironmentandthenatureofthelearner.Theenvironmentprovidesthestimuliandthelearnerprovidestheresponses.Comprehensionorproductionofcertainaspectsoflanguageandtheenvironmentprovidethereward.Theenvironmentplaysamajorroleintheexerciseofthelearners’abilitiessinceitprovidesthestimulithatcanshaperesponsesselectivelyrewardingsomeresponsesandnotothers.Theory

BehavioristTheory

(Continued)Whenthelearnerlearnsalanguage,thislearningincludesasetofstimulus-response-reward(S-R-R)chains.Imitationprovidesthelearnerwitharepertoireofappropriate,productiveresponses.Thelearnerlearnstoimitateorapproximatetheproductiveresponsesprovidedbytheenvironment.Thecharacteristicsofhumanandnon-humanlearnersincludetheabilityto:respondtostimuliinacertainway;intuitivelyevaluatetherewardpotentialofresponses;extracttheimportantparametersthatmadeupthestimulusresponse(positiverewardchains);andgeneralizetheseparameterstosimilarsituationstoformclassesofS-R-Rchains.TheoryTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)NativistTheoryviewslanguageacquisitionasinnatelydetermined.Theoristsbelievethathumanbeingsarebornwithabuilt-indeviceofsomekindthatpredisposesthemtoacquirelanguage.Thispredispositionisasystematicperceptionoflanguagearoundus,resultingintheconstructionofaninternalizedsystemoflanguage.Nativistsareontheoppositeendofthetheoreticalcontinuumandusemoreofarationalistapproachinexplainingthemysteryoflanguageacquisition.Chomsky(1965)claimedtheexistenceofinnatepropertiesoflanguagethatexplainachild’smasteryofhis/hernativelanguageinashorttimedespitethehighlyabstractnatureoftherulesoflanguage.Thisinnateknowledge,accordingtoChomsky,isembodiedina“littleblackbox”ofsortscalledaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD).TheoryNativistTheory

(Continued)McNeill(1966)describedtheLADasconsistingoffourinnatelinguisticproperties:theabilitytodistinguishspeechsoundsfromothersoundsintheenvironment;theabilitytoorganizelinguisticeventsintovariousclassesthatcanberefinedlater;knowledgethatonlyacertainkindoflinguisticsystemispossibleandthatotherkindsarenot;andtheabilitytoengageinconstantevaluationofthedevelopinglinguisticsysteminordertoconstructthesimplestpossiblesystemoutofthelinguisticdatathatareencountered.Nativistshavecontributedtothediscoveriesofhowthesystemofchildlanguageworks.TheoristssuchasChomsky,McNeill,andothershelpedusunderstandthatachild’slanguage,atanygivenpoint,isalegitimatesysteminitsownright.Theory

TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)CognitivistTheoryviewshumanbeingsashavingtheinnatecapacitytodeveloplogicalthinking.ThisschoolofthoughtwasinfluencedbyJeanPiaget’sworkwherehesuggeststhatlogicalthinkingistheunderlyingfactorforbothlinguisticandnon-linguisticdevelopment.Theprocessofassociationhasbeenusedtodescribethemeansbywhichthechildlearnstorelatewhatissaidtoparticularobjectsoreventsintheenvironment.Thebridgebywhichcertainassociationsaremadeismeaning.Theextentandaccuracyoftheassociationsmadearesaidtochangeintimeasthechildmatures.Cognitivistssaythattheconditionsforlearninglanguagearethesameconditionsthatarenecessaryforanykindoflearning.Theenvironmentprovidesthematerialthatthechildcanworkon.Cognitivistsviewtheroleoffeedbackinthelearningprocessasimportantforaffectivereasons,butnon-influentialintermsofmodifyingoralteringthesequenceofdevelopment.TheoryCognitivistTheory

(Continued)LanguageLearningasaCognitiveProcessLearningalanguageinvolvesinternalrepresentationsthatregulateandguideperformance.Automaticprocessingactivatescertainnodesinmemorywhenappropriateinputispresent.Activationisalearnedresponse.Memoryisalargecollectionofnodes.Controlledprocessingisnotalearnedresponse.Itisatemporaryactivationofnodesinasequence.Skillsarelearnedandroutinizedonlyaftertheearlieruseofcontrolledprocesseshavebeenused.Learnerstrategiescontainbothdeclarativeknowledgei.e.knowingthe‘what’ofthelanguage-internalizedrulesandmemorizedchunksoflanguage,andproceduralknowledgei.e.knowthe‘how’ofthelanguagesystemtoemploystrategies.Theory

TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)SocialInteractionistTheorysupportstheviewthatthedevelopmentoflanguagecomesfromtheearlyinteractionsbetweeninfantsandcaregivers.

Socialinteractionistsstress:theimportanceofachild’sinteractionswithparentsandothercaregivers;theimportanceof“motherese”;contributionsofcontextandworldknowledge;andtheimportanceofgoalsGlew(1998)claimsthatlearnershavetobepushedintheirnegotiationofmeaningtoproducecomprehensibleoutput.Theclassroomcontextneedstoprovideadequateopportunitiesfortargetlanguageusetoallowlearnerstodevelopcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.TheorySocialInteractionistTheory

(Continued)Comprehensibleoutputprovidesopportunitiesforcontextualized,meaningfuluseoflanguage.Socialinteractionistsbelievethat:Humanlanguageemergedfromthesocialrolethatlanguageplaysinhumaninteraction;Theenvironmentplaysakeyroleinlanguagedevelopment;Adultsinthechild’slinguisticenvironmentareviewedasinstrumentalinlanguageacquisition.Socialinteractionsarethekeyelementinlanguageprocessingandinputfromsocialinteractionsprovidesamodelfornegotiationopportunities.TheoryKrashen’sFiveHypothesesforSecondLanguageAcquisition

TheAcquisition-Learning

Hypothesisclaimsthatwehavetwoindependentwaysofdevelopinglanguageability:LanguageAcquisitionisasubconsciousprocess.Itoccursverynaturallyinanon-threateningenvironment.Theresearchstronglysupportstheviewthatbothchildrenandadultscansubconsciouslyacquirelanguages.LanguageLearningiswhatoccursatschoolinanacademicsetting.Itisaconsciousprocess.Whenwetalkaboutrulesandgrammaroflanguage,weareusuallytalkingaboutlearning.TheNaturalOrder

Hypothesisclaimsthatweacquirepartsofalanguageinapredictableorder.Somegrammaticalitemstendtocomeearlierintheacquisitionthanothers.Forexample,the–ingprogressiveisacquiredfairlyearlyinfirstlanguageacquisition,whilethirdpersonsingular–sisacquiredlater.12Krashen’sFiveHypotheses(Continued)

TheMonitorHypothesisattemptstoexplainhowacquisitionandlearningareused.Languageisnormallyproducedusingouracquiredlinguisticcompetence.Consciouslearninghasonlyonefunction…asthe“Monitor”or“Editor.”Afterweproducesomelanguageusingtheacquiredsystem,wesometimesinspectitanduseourlearnedsystemtocorrecterrors.Thiscanhappeninternallybeforeweactuallyspeakorwrite,orasaself-correctionafterweproducetheutteranceorwrittentext.

ComprehensibleInputHypothesiscontendsthatmorecomprehensibleinputresultsinmoreacquisition.TheAffectiveFilterHypothesisclaimsthataffectivevariablesdonotimpactlanguageacquisitiondirectly,butcanpreventinputfromreachingwhatChomskycalledtheLanguageAcquisitionDevice.TheLADisthepartofthebrainthatisresponsibleforlanguageacquisition.543Cummin’sSecondLanguageFrameworkCumminsmakesadistinctionbetweensociallanguageandacademiclanguage. 1.Sociallanguagereferstotheeverydayconversationallanguagewhichissupported bytheuseofillustrations,realia,demonstrations,etc.(ContextEmbedded).Studies showthatlanguagelearnersacquiresociallanguageinapproximatelytwoyears. Sociallanguagedealswiththehere-and-nowlanguage,thereforesecondlanguage learnerstendtoacquireitfaster. 2.Academiclanguageisthelanguageofschooltaskswhichismoreabstractand decontextualized(ContextReduced).SomesecondlanguagelearnerswhodevelopfluentspokenEnglishhavedifficultiesinreadingandwritingbecausetheymaybeatdifferentlevelsofproficiencywhiletheyaremovingfromsociallanguage(BICS)toacademiclanguage(CALP).Ittakesbetweenfivetosevenyearsforsecondlanguagelearnerstoacquireacademiclanguage.Context-EmbeddedCognitivelyUndemandingSampleTasksContext-Embedded/CognitivelyUndemandingtasksaresupportedbytheuseofpictures,illustrations,demonstrations,connectionswithlifeexperiences,etc.Languagelearningisnon-threateningandlearnersareabletodependonenvironmentalcuesforassistance.

Somesampletasksinclude:developingsurvivalvocabulary;followingdemonstrateddirections;playingsimplegames;engaginginface-to-faceinteractions;andparticipatinginart,musicandphysicaleducationactivities.Context-EmbeddedCognitivelyDemandingSampleTasksContext-Embedded/CognitivelyDemandingtasksarethoseactivitiesthatprovidesomeenvironmentalcues,butaremorecognitivelydemanding.Languagelearnersareexposedtomorecomplextasksthatincludesomecontext-embeddedcues.

Examplesofthesetasksinclude:participatinginhands-onscienceandmathematicsactivities;makingmaps,models,charts,andgraphs;solvingmathcomputationalproblems;makingbrieforalpresentations;understandingacademicpresentationsthroughtheuseofvisuals,demonstrations,activeparticipation,realia,etc.;andwritingacademicreportswiththeaidofoutlines,structures,etc.Context-ReducedCognitivelyUndemandingSampleTasks

Context-Reduced/CognitivelyUndemandingtasksarethoseactivitiesthataresimpletocarryoutbutdonotcontainanyenvironmentalcuestoassistthelanguagelearner.

Somesampletasksinclude:

engagingintelephoneconversations;readingforpersonalpurposes;andwritingforpersonalpurposes:notes,lists,sketches,etc.Context-ReducedCognitivelyDemandingSampleTasks

Context-Reduced/Cognitively

Demandingtasksarethosethatrequiremoreacademicallydemandinglanguage,aremoreabstractandaredecontextualized.

Someexamplesofthesetasksinclude:understandingacademicpresentationswithoutvisualsordemonstrations(lectures);makingformaloralpresentations;solvingmathwordproblemswithoutillustrations;writingcompositions,essays,andresearchreportsincontentareas;readingforinformationincontentareas;andtakingstandardizedachievementtests.ComponentsofCommunicativeCompetenceCanaleandSwain(1983)identifiedfourcomponentsofcommunicativecompetence: 1)grammaticalcompetence 2)sociolinguisticcompetence 3)discoursecompetence 4)strategiccompetenceGrammaticalcompetencemeansunderstandingtheskillsandknowledgenecessarytospeakandwriteaccurately.Grammaticalcompetenceincludes: 1)vocabulary 2)wordformation 3)meaning 4)sentenceformation 5)pronunciation 6)spellingSociolinguisticcompetenceinvolvesknowinghowtoproduceandunderstandthelanguageindifferentsociolinguisticcontexts,takingintoconsiderationsuchfactorsas: 1)thestatusoftheparticipants 2)thepurposeoftheinteraction;and 3)thenormsorconventionsoftheinteraction.ComponentsofCommunicativeCompetence(Continued)Discoursecompetenceinvolvestheabilitytocombineandconnectutterances(spoken)andsentences(written)intoameaningfulwhole.Discourserangesfromasimplespokenconversationtolongwrittentexts.Strategiccompetenceinvolvesthemanipulationoflanguageinordertomeetcommunicativegoals.Itinvolvesbothverbalandnon-verbalbehaviors.Speakersemploythiscompetencefortwomainreasons: 1)tocompensateforbreakdownsincommunicationsuchaswhenthespeakerforgetsordoesnotknowatermandisforcedtoparaphraseorgesturetogettheideaacross;and 2)toenhancetheeffectivenessofcommunicationsuchaswhenaspeakerraisesorlowersthevoiceforeffect.CompetenceVs.PerformanceAccordingtoChomsky(1965),competenceconsistsofmentalrepresentationsoflinguisticrulesthatconstitutethespeaker-hearer’sinternalgrammar.Thisinternalgrammarisimplicitratherthanexplicit.Itisevidentintheintuitions,whichthespeaker-hearerhasaboutthegrammaticalityofsentences.Performanceconsistsoftheuseofthisgrammarinthecomprehensionandproductionofthelanguage.Communicativecompetenceisthataspectofthelanguageuser’scompetencethatenablesthemtoconveyandinterpretmessagesandtonegotiatemeaningsinterpersonallywithinspecificcontexts.Languageisaformofcommunicationthatoccursinsocialinteraction.Itisusedforapurposesuchaspersuading,commanding,andestablishingsocialrelationships.Nolongeristhefocusonspecificknowledgeofgrammaticalform.Instead,thecompetentspeakerisrecognizedasonewhoknowswhen,where,andhowtouselanguageappropriately.LanguageLearningBehaviorist’sviewsoflanguagelearningandoflanguageteachingwerepre-dominantinthetwodecadesfollowingthesecondworldwar.TheseviewsdrewongeneraltheoriesoflearningpropoundedbypsychologistssuchasWatson(1924),Thorndike(1932),andSkinner(1957).Dakin(1973)identifiesthreegeneralprinciplesoflanguagelearningderivedfromthesetheories.Accordingtothelawofexercise,languagelearningispromotedwhenthelearnermakesactiveandrepeatedresponsestostimuli.Thelawofeffectemphasizestheimportanceofreinforcingthelearners’responsesandcorrectingnon-target-likeones.Theprincipleofshapingclaimsthatlearningwillproceedmostsmoothlyandrapidlyifcomplexbehaviorsarebrokendownintotheircomponentpartsandlearnedbit-by-bit.LanguageLearning

(Continued)Underlyingtheseprincipleswastheassumptionthatlanguagelearning,likeanyotherkindoflearning,tooktheformofhabitformation,“ahabitconsistingofanautomaticresponseelicitedbyagivenstimulus.Learningwasseentotakeplaceinductivelythroughanalogyratherthananalysis.Accordingtobehavioristtheories,themainimpedimenttolearningwasinterferencefrompriorknowledge.Proactiveinhibitionoccurredwhenoldhabitsgotinthewayofattemptstolearnnewones.Insuchcases,theoldhabitshadtobeunlearnedsothattheycouldbereplacedbythenewones.ThenotionofunlearningmadelittlesenseaslearnersdidnotneedtoforgettheirL1inordertoacquireanL2.Forthisreason,behavioristtheoriesofL2learningemphasizedtheideaof“difficulty.”ThisisdefinedastheamountofeffortrequiredtolearnanL2pattern.Thedegreeofdifficultywasbelievedtodependprimarilyintheextenttowhichthetargetlanguagepatternwassimilartoordifferentfromanativelanguagepattern.InputandInteractionL2acquisitioncanonlytakeplacewhenthelearnerhasaccesstoinputinthesecondlanguage.Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.Spokeninputoccursinface-to-faceinteractions.Non-reciprocaldiscourseincludeslisteningtotheradioorwatchingafilm.Behavioristsclaimthatpresentinglearnerswithinputintherightdosesandthenreinforcingtheirattemptstopracticethemcancontroltheprocessofacquisition.Chomskypointedoutthatinmanycasestherewasaverypoormatchbetweenthekindoflanguagefoundintheinputthatlearnersreceivedandthekindoflanguagetheythemselvesproduced.Comprehensibleinput(Krashen’s,1985InputHypothesis)proposedthatlearnersacquiremorphologicalfeaturesinanaturalorderasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem.Long(1981a)arguedthatinputwhichismadecomprehensiblebymeansoftheconversationaladjustmentsthatoccurwhenthereisacomprehensionproblemisespeciallyimportantforacquisition.Swain(1985)proposedthecomprehensibleoutputhypothesiswhichstatesthatlearnersneedopportunitiesfor“pushedoutput”inspeechorwritingthatmakesdemandsonthemforcorrectandappropriateuseoftheL2.TheRoleoftheNativeLanguageinSecondLanguageAcquisitionTheroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguageacquisitionhascometobeknownas“languagetransfer.”Ithasbeenassumedthatinasecondlanguagelearningsituationlearnersrelyextensivelyontheirnativelanguage.AccordingtoLado(1957)individualstendtotransferformsandmeanings,thedistributionoftheformsandmeaningsoftheirnativelanguageandculturetotheforeignlanguageandculture.Thistransferisproductivewhenthelearnerattemptstospeakthelanguage.Thistransferisreceptivewhenthelearnerattemptstograspandunderstandthelanguageandcultureaspracticedbynativespeakers.Lado’sworkandmuchoftheworkofthattime(1950’s)wasbasedontheneedtoproducepedagogicallyrelevantmaterials.Acontrastiveanalysisofthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewasconductedinordertodeterminesimilaritiesanddifferencesinthelanguages.LanguageTransferFrameworkfor

ExplainingL1Transfer

TheL1systemisusedforbothcomprehensionandproduction.Theinterlanguagesystemisalsousedincomprehendingandreceivingmessages.TheL1systemisusedinhypothesisconstructionresponsibleforinterlanguagedevelopment.Comprehensibleinputservesasamajorsourceofinformationforhypothesisconstruction.L2outputmaybeusedforhypothesisconstruction.LanguageTransferTowardaTheoryofFirstLanguageTransferAnimportantdistinctionnotalwaysmadeindiscussionsoftransferisbetweentransferinL2communicationandtransferinL2learning.TransferincommunicationinvolvestheuseoftheL1eithertoreceiveincomingmessages(reception)ortoprocessoutput(production).TransferinlearningoccurswhenthelearnerusestheL1inanattempttodevelophypothesesaboutL2rules.Thereareseveralpossibilitiesfortransfer:1)itisprimarilyacharacteristicofcommunication2)itisprimarilyafeatureoflearning3)bothcommunicationandlearningtransferaresignificantandinterrelatedaspectsofL2acquisition.TheoryLanguageTransferWherethetwolanguageswereidentical,learningcouldtakeplacethroughpositivetransfertothenative-languagepattern.Wherethetwolanguagesweredifferent,learningdifficultyaroseanderrorsoccurredresultingfromnegativetransfer.

Chomsky(1959)setinmotionare-evaluationofmanyofthebehavioristsclaims.Thisre-evaluationincludedareasuchas:thedangersofextrapolatingfromlaboratorystudiesofanimalbehaviortothelanguagebehaviorofhumanswerepointedout;thetermsstimulusandresponsewereexposedasvacuouswherelanguagebehaviorwasconcerned;analogycouldnotaccountforthelanguageuser’sabilitytogeneratetotallynovelutterances;andstudiesofchildrenacquiringtheirL1showedthatparentsrarelycorrectedtheirchildren’slinguisticerrors,thuscastingdoubtontheimportanceofreinforcementinlanguagelearning.AllthisledtothereconsiderationoftheroleofL1inL2learning.LanguageTransferTheNatureofthe

InterlanguageContinuum

Cognitivetheoriesofinterlanguageclaimthatwiththeassistanceoflearningstrategies,learnersbuildmentalgrammarsofthesecondlanguage.Learnersdrawontherulestheyhaveconstructedtointerpretandproduceutterances.Learner’sutterancesareonlyerroneouswithreferencetothetargetlanguagenorms,nottothenormsoftheirowngrammars.Theinterlanguagecontinuumconsistsofaseriesofoverlappinggrammars.Eachsharesomeruleswiththepreviouslyconstructedgrammar,butalsocontainssomeneworrevisedrules.Arulehasthestatusofahypothesis.Selinker’sInterlanguage

TheorySelinker’sInterlanguageTheorymaintainstheseparatenessofasecondlanguagelearner’ssystemandgivesthesystemastructurallyintermediatestatusbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguages.AccordingtoSelinker,secondlanguagelearnersareproducingtheirownself-containedlinguisticsystem.Thesystemisnotanativelanguageortargetlanguagesystem,ratheritfallsbetweenthetwo.StagesofInterlanguageDevelopmentinclude: 1)randomerrors(presystematic); 2)experimentationandinaccurateguessing; 3)emergent-growinginconsistencyinlinguisticproduction; 4)backsliding-appearstohavegraspedbutlaterregressedandunabletocorrecterrors; 5)systematicstage-abilitytocorrecterrorsontheirown;rulesmaynotbewell-formedbutdisplaymoreinternalself-consistency; 6)stabilization-fewerrorsaremade,have