社会心理学第三章英文版Lecture-3-Social-beliefs-and-judgements课件

Lecture3:SocialBeliefsandJudgments

TieyuanGuoOutlinesPerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworldsPerceivingOurSocialWorldsPrimingActivatingparticularassociationsinmemoryExample:WatchingascarymovieathomemayprimeustointerpretwindownoisesasapossibleintruderExperimentInoneear,youheard“Westoodbythebank”.Intheotherear,youheard“river”or“money”.Results:Thewordsinthesecondear“primes”yourinterpretationofthesentence.PerceivingOurSocialWorldsPrimingEvensubliminalstimulicansubtlychangeourbehavior.Flashingtheword“bread”subliminallycanmakepeopleidentifytheword“butter”morequickly.EmbodiedcognitionThemutualinfluenceofbodilysensationoncognitivepreferenceandsocialjudgementsExperiments:PhysicalsensationcognitivepreferenceandjudgementParticipantswhowereexposedtothescentofcleanera)werequickertoidentifycleaningrelatedwords,b)recalledmorecleaningrelatedactivities,andc)evenkepttheirdeskcleanerwhileeatingcrumblycookie.Participantswhowereholdingawarmdrinkratedothersasbeingmorewarmlyandgenerouslythanthoseholdingacolddrink.Sittinginahardchairvs.softchairhardorsoftcriminalsentenceEmbodiedcognitionThemutualinfluenceofbodilysensationoncognitivepreferenceandsocialjudgementsTheotherwayaround:CognitivepreferenceandjudgementPhysicalbehavior/sensationParticipantswhorecalledpersonalimmoralbehaviorwashedtheirhandslongerthanthosewhorecalledmoralbehavior.ThepowerofpreconceptionsPreconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofthesocialworld.InPoliticalPerceptionsWhatifsomeonesay“UMRectorZhaoWeiisanokayleader”?ForthosewhoadmireandrespectZhao:Thecommentsoundslikeacritique.Thispersonisbiased.ForthosewhodislikeZhao:Thisisapraise.Thispersonisbiased.Thismayexplainwhysportsfansperceiverefereesaspartialtotheotherside,andpoliticalcandidatesandtheirsupportersalwaysperceivethenewsmediaasbiased.ThepowerofpreconceptionsPreconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofthesocialworld.InPoliticalPerceptionsExperimentShowedPro-IsraeliandPro-Arabstudentssixnewssegmentsdescribesakillingevent.Results:Eachgroupperceivedthenewsashostiletoitsside.ThepowerofpreconceptionsPreconceptionscanpersevereitselfbyadoptingfavorableevidenceandignoringdisapprovalinformation.InPoliticalPerceptionsExperimentParticipantswhofavoreddeathpunishmentandwhodidn’t.Bothgroupofparticipantsreadtwo“studies”:oneconfirmedandonedisconfirmedthedeterrenteffectofdeathpenalty.Results:Thegroupwhofavoreddeathpenaltysupporteddeathpenaltyevenmore,andthegroupwhoopposeddeathpenaltyopposedmore,i.e.,themixedevidenceincreasedthedisagreement.Thatmayexplainwhypresidentialdebatesusuallyreinforcepredebateopinions.ThepowerofpreconceptionsInPerceptionofOthersPreconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofothers.ExperimentOnegroup:aNazileaderformedicalexperimentsonconcentrationcampinmatesCruelfacialexpressionTheothergroup:Ananti-NaziundergroundleaderwhosavedthousandsofJewishlives.WarmandkindfacialexpressionOthers’perceptionofusSpontaneoustraittransferenceWhenwesaysomethinggoodorbadaboutanother,peoplespontaneouslytendtoassociatethattraitwithus.Apersonwhogoesaroundsayanotherpersonisgossip,wetendtoperceivethispersonasbeinggossip.BeliefPerseveranceBeliefPerseverancePersistenceofone’sinitialconceptions,aswhenthebasisforone’sbeliefisdiscreditedbutanexplanationofwhythebeliefmightbetruesurvivesBeliefPerseveranceBeliefPerseveranceExperimentImplantabelief-participantsweretoldthatindividualswhotakeriskmakeeithergoodorbadfirefighters.Explainwhy-participantsexplainedwhyrisk-takingorbeingcautiousisgoodforsuccessfulfirefighters.Discreditinformation-participantsweretoldthattheinformationtheyinitiallyreceivedwascompletelymadeupfortheexperiment,andhalfothersreceivedtheotherversion.Results-theinitialbeliefpersevered.Thosewhoweretoldrisk-takingorbeingcautiousaregoodforfirefighterscontinuetomaintaintheirbeliefs.ConstructingMemoriesConstructingMemoriesMemoriesarenotexactlycopiesofourexperiences/information-We(re)constructourmemories.MisinformationeffectIncorporating“misinformation”intoone’smemoryoftheeventafterwitnessinganeventandreceivingmisleadinginformationaboutitMisinformationeffectShowafilmofacaraccident,thenaskparticipantsHowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheysmashedintoeachother?40milesHowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheycontactedeachother?30milesAweeklater,askparticipantsiftheysawanybrokenglasses(infact,nobrokenglassesinthefilm)“Smashedinto”condition,33%reportedyes.“Contacted”condition,14%reportedyes.ConstructingMemoriesReconstructingourpastattitudesPeopletendtobelievetheyalwayshavesimilarattitudeseveniftheirattitudeshadbeenchanged.ExperimentMeasuredstudentsattitudestowardapolicyallowingstudentscontroltheuniversitycurriculum.Aweeklater,askedstudentstowroteanessayopposingstudents’control-themanipulationchangedtheirattitudesRecalltheirinitialattitudesaweekago.Results:Studentsbelievedthattheirinitialattitudeswerethesameasthepresentones-deniedchanges.ConstructingMemoriesReconstructingourpastattitudesRosyretrospection-The“good”olddays.Theconstructionofpositivememories.ExperimentParticipantsreportedtheirdailyfeelingswhentheyhada3-weekbiketrip.Afterthetrip,theyrecalledtheexperiencesResults:Thetripwasmorefondlyinrecallthanitactuallywas.ConstructingMemoriesReconstructingourpastattitudesIncloserelationship-thelove-at-first-sightillusionWhenpeoplearesatisfiedwiththeirpartner,theyoverestimatetheirinitialliking.ExperimentParticipantsratedtheirsteadydatingpartnerwhentheystartedtherelationshipand2monthlaterResults:Thosewholoveeachothermoreoverestimatetheirinitialliking-loveatthefirstsight,andthosewhobrokeupunderestimateit.ConstructingMemoriesReconstructingourpastbehaviorExperimentIn“one”study,someparticipantswereconvincedthedesirabilityoftoothbrushing.Theninanseemingly“unrelated”study,theyrecalledbrushingtheirteethmoreoftenintheprecedingtwoweeksthanthosewhodidn’theardtheinformation.ConstructingMemoriesReconstructingourpastbehaviorBelieveinself-improvementprogramsreconstructingpastbehavior/performanceExperimentStudentsreportedtheirinitiallearningskillbeforeandafteralearningskill“training”program.Thetrainingprogramisactuallyuseless.Afterthe“training”program,studentratedtheirinitialskillasbeingworsethantheirinitialratings.Thismayexplainwhypeoplebelievemanytrainingprogramsareeffective.OutlinesPerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworldsJudgingOurSocialWorldIntuitiveJudgments-PowersofintuitionControlledprocessingReflective,deliberate,andconsciousAutomaticprocessingImpulsive,effortless,andwithoutourawarenessExamplesEmotionalreactionsareoftenhappeningbeforedeliberatethinking-Directneuralshortcutstoemotionprocessingcenterbeforegoingtocortex.UnconsciousthinkingleadstosatisfyingchoicesJudgingOurSocialWorldIntuitiveJudgments-PowersofintuitionImplicitmemoriesandcognitionsPatientswhocannotformnewexplicitmemoriesCannotmemorizeexplicitly,buttheirbehaviorwasaffectedbypreviousexperienceBlindsight-Patientscouldn’tseeobjectsbecausepartoftheirvisualcortexwasremoved,buttheycouldguessifastickisverticalorhorizontal.OverconfidenceTendencytobemoreconfidentthancorrect–tooverestimatetheaccuracyofone’sbeliefsExperiments“Ifeel98%certainthattheairdistancebetweenNewDelhiandBeijingismorethan_____milesandlessthan____miles.”Results-About30%oftime,therealdistanceisoutsidetherangeparticipants98%confidentabout.OverconfidenceIncompetencefeedsoverconfidenceThosewholacksofcompetencetendtohavemoreoverconfidenceExample-Thosewhodon’tknowthelogicareoftenunwaretheylackit.Ourignoranceofourignorancesustainsouroverconfidence.ExamplesPlanningfallacyStockbrokeroverconfidence-Stocksselectedbyanalystsdonotoutperformrandomlyselectedstocks.WhatproducesoverconfidenceRecallmistakenjudgementas“almost”right.Confirmationbias-atendencytosearchforinformationthatconfirmsone’spreconceptions,andignoreinformationthatmightdisapprovetheirpreconception.Demonstration-Igeneratedthefollowing3numbersaccordingtoarule,andwouldlikeyoutoguesswhatistherule.Youcangenerateadditional3numbersandI’lltellyouwhetheryournumbersfollowtheruleornot.2,4,6,___,___,___Sowhatistherule?Myruleis“theyareascendingnumbers”RemediesforOverconfidenceGivepromptfeedbacktoexplainwhystatementisincorrectForplanningfallacy,askoneto“unpackatask”–breakitdownintoestimatedtimerequirementsforeachpartGetpeopletothinkofonegoodreasonwhytheirjudgmentsmightbewrongHeuristicsHeuristics-mentalshortcuts,simple,efficientthinkingstrategies.RepresentativenessheuristicTendencytopresume,sometimesdespitecontraryodds,thatsomeoneorsomethingbelongstoaparticulargroupifresembling(representing)atypicalmemberHeuristicsRepresentativenessheuristicLinda,whois31,single,outspoken,andverybright.Shemajoredinphilosophyincollege.Asastudent,shewasdeeplyconcernedwithdiscriminationandothersocialissues,andsheparticipatedinantinucleardemonstrations.A:LindaisabanktellerB:Lindaisabanktellerandactiveinthefeministmovement.HeuristicsAvailabilityheuristicCognitiverulethatjudgesthelikelihoodofthingsintermsoftheiravailabilityinmemoryThemoreeasilywerecallsomethingthemorelikelyitseemsEvidence:Mediaattentiontogay-lesbianissuesmakegaysandlesbianscognitivelyavailableOverestimatesthenumberofgaysandlesbians.

InUSA,theestimationbygeneralpublicis25%,whichis7timesoftheactualpercentageofgaysandlesbians.HeuristicsAvailabilityheuristicAretheremorewordsthatbeginwiththeletter“k”orhave“k”inthethirdpositioninthetextbook?Easiertothinkwordsbeginwith“k”thanhave“k”inthethirdposition.Travelbyplaneorbycar?Peoplehascertainfeartotravelbyairplanes.Actually,airplanetravelingismuchsaferthandriving.After9/11,peoplechoosetodriveinsteadoftakingairplanes,andthenumberofdeathintravelaccidentsincreasedsignificantly.HeuristicsAvailabilityheuristicChangeanswersinmultiplechoicequestionsImaginethatinansweringthemultiplechoicequestionsinaexam,youansweredaquestion.Butthen,aftergivingitsomeadditionalthought,youdecidedtochangeyouranswertoanotherchoice.Wereyoumorelikelytochangefromwrongtorightorrighttowronganswer?AvailabilityheuristicAsurveyof1561studentsonmultiplechoicequestions.Ofthe3291answersthathasbeenchanged:Fromwrongtowrong:23%Fromwrongtoright:51%Fromrighttowrong:25%However,majorityofstudentsbelievedtheyshouldstickwiththeirfirstanswer.Whydoesthishappen?AvailabilityheuristicInstancesthatchangingfromrighttowronganswersaremorememorablethanthosethatchangingfromwrongtoright.“Ihadthatoneright!”insteadof“Ihadthatonewrong”Experiment-participantscompletedamultiplechoicetest,receivedanswerkeyshortly.4to6weekslater,participantsrecalledinstancesinwhichtheychangedanswers.Resultsshowedthatparticipantsoverestimatedrighttowrongchanges,andunderestimatedwrongtorightchanges.HeuristicsCounterfactualThinkingImaginingalternativescenariosandoutcomesthatmighthavehappened,butdidn’tEvidences:InOlympiccompetition,bronzemedalists(forwhomaneasilyimaginedalternativewasfinishingwithoutamedal)exhibitmorejoythansilvermedalists(whowouldmoreeasilyimaginehavingwonthegold)Similarly,theB+studentswhomissesanA-byapointfeelsworsethantheB+studentswhojustmadeaB+byapoint.CounterfactualThinkingRegret-Whatdoyouregretfor?Thinkaboutthe3thingsyouregretmostinyourlife…PeoplearelesslikelytoregretoverthingstheydidthanoverthingstheyfailedtodoExamples:Peoplearelikelytoregretfornottakingtheireducationseriously,notexpressingtheirromanticfeelingstowardsomeone.IllusoryThinking-OursearchfororderinrandomeventsIllusorycorrelation-Perceptionofarelationshipwherenoneexists,orperceptionofastrongerrelationshipthanactuallyexistsReason-Peopleeasilymisperceiverandomeventsasconfirmingtheirbeliefs,i.e.,whenwebelieveacorrelationexists,wearemorelikelytonoticeandrecallconfirminginstances,andignoreorforgetdisconfirminginstances.ExamplesPMSJointpainsandrainingweatherOverweightwomenareunhappier(Viken&others,2005)IllusoryThinkingIllusionofcontrolPerceptionofuncontrollableeventsassubjecttoone’scontrolorasmorecontrollablethantheyareGamblingPeopleaskedfourtimesasmuchmoneyforsellingtheirlotteryticketiftheychosethenumbersthemselvesthanifthenumberswereassignedbyothers(Langer,1977).Peoplebetmorewhenthrowthediceorspinsthewheel(Wohl&Enzle,2002).IllusoryThinkingIllusionofcontrolRegressiontowardtheaverageStatisticaltendencyforextremescoresorextremebehaviortoreturntowardone’saverageExperimentGoal:Trainaimaginaryboytocometoschoolat8:30.Tools:StrongpraisetostrongpunishmentTimetoarriveschool:Thepraiseandpunishmenthavenoactualeffect-Theboycometoschoolatarandomtimebetween8:20to8:40,generatedbycomputer.Results:participantsbelievedthatpunishmentiseffective.Explanation:participantsusedpunishmentwhentheboyisverylate,andbecauseofregressiontowardtheaverage,thenexttime,theboyislikelytoarriveschoolearlier.MoodsandJudgmentsGoodandbadmoodstriggermemoriesofexperiencesassociatedwiththosemoodsInagoodmood(afterreceivingagift),peoplemorelikelyreportedthattheircarsandTVsetsworkingperfectlythanthoseinaneutralmood.MoodscolorourinterpretationsofcurrentexperiencesandpredictionsoffutureeventsSportsfanspredictwarslesslikelytohappenwhentheirteamwinsthanwhentheirteamloses.MoodsandJudgmentsExperimentVideotapedparticipants’talkingwithanotherperson.Thentheywereputineitheragoodorbadmood.Ratedtheirownsocialskillsinthevideotapedconversation.Atemporarygoodorbadmoodstronglyinfluencedpeople’sratingsoftheirvideotapedbehavior.Thoseinabadmooddetectedfarfewerpositivebehaviors.

OutlinesPerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworldsExplainingOurSocialWorldImportanceofattributionUnhappyspouse:“Hewaslatebecausehedoesn’tcareaboutme”and“Heboughtmeflowersbecausehewantssex”Happyspouse:“Hewaslatebecauseofheavytraffic”and“Heboughtmeflowersbecausehelovesme”MisattributionMisattribution-MistakenlyattributingabehaviortothewrongsourceMenaremorelikelythanwomentoattributeawoman’sfriendliness/warmthasasexualcome-on,especiallyformenwithhighpower.Thismaycontributetosexualharassmentandevenrape.23%ofAmericanwomenreportedtheyhadbeenforcedintounwantedsex,whileonly3%ofmensaidtheyhaddonethat.Misattribution-ExcitationTransferDutton&Aron(1974)MenwereapproachedbyanattractivewomanaftercrossingbridgeShakysuspensionbridgeStablebridgeAskedtoparticipateinashortstudy(shownpicture,askedtomakeupstory)WomangivesphonenumberincaseparticipanthasquestionsaboutthestudyDutton&Aron(1974)Comparedtothemenonstablebridge,menonthesuspensionbridge:UsedmoresexualimageryintheirstoriesMorelikelytocalltheattractivefemaleresearchassistant%CallingExperimenter0102030405060StableBridgeSuspensionBridgeAttributiontheoryTheoryofhowpeopleexplainothers’behaviorDispositionalattributionAttributeaperson’sactionstosomethinginternaltothatpersonSituationalattributionAttributeaperson’sactionstofactorsthatareexternaltothatpersonKelley’sCovariationTheoryCovariationPrinciple(共變原則)–tendencytoattributebehaviortofactorsthatarepresentwhenthebehavioroccurs,andabsentwhenitisnot3kindsofcovariation:Consistency-whetherthebehavioroccursrepeatedlyinresponsetothissituation.Distinctiveness-whetherthebehaviorisspecifictoaparticularsituation.Consensus-whetherotherpeoplealsoproducethesamebehaviorinthesamesituation.Kelley’sCovariationTheoryFundamentalAttributionErrorTendencyforobserverstounderestimatesituationalinfluencesandoverestimatedispositionalinfluencesuponothers’behaviorExperimentParticipantsreaddebaters’speechessupportingorattackingCuba’sleader,Castro.Participantsweretoldthedebaterseitherchosetheirpositionsorwereassignedapositionbyothers.Ratingthedebaters’realattitudes.FundamentalAttributionErrorTheratingswereaffectedbythedebater’sposition,evenwhentheirpositionwaschosenbyothers.Ross,Amabile,&SteinmetzParticipantswererandomlyassignedtoplay:QuestionerContestantObserverQuestionerswereinstructedtowrite10challengingquestionsContestantsanswered4/10questionscorrectlyAllparticipantsratedgeneralknowledgeof:QuestionersContestantsWhyDoWeMaketheAttributionError?PerspectiveandsituationalawarenessActor-observerperspectivesWhenweact,theenvironmentcommandsourattention.Whenweobserveotheracts,thepersonisthecenterofattention.PerspectiveschangewithtimeWhenwethinkaboutthepastself,the“pastself”isthecenterofattention.CameraperspectivebiasAsuspectconfessseemsgenuinewhenacamerafocusesonhimthanwhenacamerafocusedontheinterrogator.FundamentalAttributionErrorandCultureIstheFundamentalAttributionErroruniversal?Morris&Peng(1994)Englishvs.Chinesenewspapers’coverageof2murders:ChinesephysicsstudentAmericanpostalworkerCoded#ofdispositional&situationalattributionsmadebyreportersSituationattributions:Chinese>AmericansDispositionalattributions:Americans>ChineseOut