学士毕业设计专业外文翻译

常州工学院土建学院毕业设计PAGE32-CHANGZHOUINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY2013届毕业设计专业外文翻译题目：ArchitectureStructure专业土木工程班级09土Y4学号09125437姓名姚嘉诚指导老师李雄威2013年02月23日、英语原文摘自“西方建筑结构工程论文”网站英语原文：ArchitectureStructureWehaveandthearchitectsmustdealwiththespatialaspectofactivity,physical,andsymbolicneedsinsuchawaythatoverallperformanceintegrityisassured.Hence,heorshewellwantstothinkofevolvingabuildingenvironmentasatotalsystemofinteractingandspaceformingsubsystems.Isrepresentsacomplexchallenge,andtomeetitthearchitectwillneedahierarchicdesignprocessthatprovidesatleastthreelevelsoffeedbackthinking:schematic,preliminary,andfinal.Suchahierarchyisnecessaryifheorsheistoavoidbeingconfused,atconceptualstagesofdesignthinking,bythemyriaddetailissuesthatcandistractattentionfrommorebasicconsiderations.Infact,wecansaythatanarchitect’sabilitytodistinguishthemorebasicformthemoredetailedissuesisessentialtohissuccessasadesigner.Theobjectoftheschematicfeedbacklevelistogenerateandevaluateoverallsite-plan,activity-interaction,andbuilding-configurationoptions.Todosothearchitectmustbeabletofocusontheinteractionofthebasicattributesofthesitecontext,thespatialorganization,andthesymbolismasdeterminantsofphysicalform.Thismeansthat,inschematicterms,thearchitectmayfirstconceiveandmodelabuildingdesignasanorganizationalabstractionofessentialperformance-spaceinteractions，Thenheorshemayexploretheoverallspace-formimplicationsoftheabstraction.Asanactualbuildingconfigurationoptionbeginstoemerge,itwillbemodifiedtoincludeconsiderationforbasicsiteconditions.Attheschematicstage,itwouldalsobehelpfulifthedesignercouldvisualizehisorheroptionsforachievingoverallstructuralintegrityandconsidertheconstructivefeasibilityandeconomicofhisorherscheme.Butthiswillrequirethatthearchitectand/oraconsultantbeabletoconceptualizetotal-systemstructuraloptionsintermsofelementaldetail.Suchoverallthinkingcanbeeasilyfedbacktoimprovethespace-formscheme.Atthepreliminarylevel,thearchitect’semphasiswillshifttotheelaborationofhisorhermorepromisingschematicdesignoptions.Herethearchitect’sstructuralneedswillshifttoapproximatedesignofspecificsubsystemoptions.Atthisstagethetotalstructuralschemeisdevelopedtoamiddlelevelofspecificitybyfocusingonidentificationanddesignofmajorsubsystemstotheextentthattheirkeygeometric,component,andinteractivepropertiesareestablished.Basicsubsysteminteractionanddesignconflictscanthusbeidentifiedandresolvedinthecontextoftotal-systemobjectives.Consultantscanplayasignificantpartinthiseffort;thesepreliminary-leveldecisionsmayalsoresultinfeedbackthatcallsforrefinementorevenmajorchangeinschematicconcepts.牢Whe教nt贿he炎des灭ign蚂er商and舱th删ec茂lie愈nt疮are墙sa旦tis歼fie郑dw冶ith欢th纹ef欠eas直ibi越lit搭yo赖fa俊de催sig擦np亦rop副osa乒la稻tt虹he滥pre甚lim拼ina住ry波lev到el,捏it悄me三ans虫th键at太the写ba己sic智pr谦obl拦ems毁of臣ov辰era疮ll赤des绵ign率ar播es女olv窑ed益and夹de商tai插ls伟are典no壤tl洽ike偷ly赚to泰pro泛duc治em挎ajo道rc返han印ge叙.Th银ef键ocu私ss派hif执ts蔑aga背in纽,an担dt哑he贯des兆ign委pr就oce戚ss绳mov么es拜int余ot旱he肥fin粒al糟lev犹el厕.At毅th盯is具sta括ge贺the翻em酒pha敲sis记wi斯ll符be将on悦the颂de大tai丸led冠de鸟vel藏opm锅ent刊of腾al锄ls剖ubs摇yst耀em鲁spe酷cif太ics笔.钩Her眠et裁he寻rol惕eo磁fs品pec蒜ial衫ist栏sf时rom村va住rio桨us卧fie倾lds川,i环ncl州udi含ng寸str芦uct栗ura介le津ngi袋nee价rin湾g,迟is蹄muc荡hl新arg自er,使si注nce尺al存ld课eta谱il宅of这the说pr抬eli都min摄ary晌de氧sig遵nm贵ust乒be燕wo亩rke筑do许ut.螺De煌cis涨ion辟sm献ade菊at讯th续is法lev深el日may令pr温odu睡ce哨fee焦dba斯ck凝int破oL魔eve要lI翼It亚hat呀wi樱ll放res泥ult肠in致ch啦ang偏es.钟Ho赢wev籍er,呆if丸Le跨vel缠sI兼an活dI忙Ia粒re恰han柄dle御dw赔ith于in丰sig歼ht,布th槐er菊ela替tio喉nsh字ip杜bet璃wee洞nt筋he胖ove芽ral诊ld鬼eci缩sio买ns,摆ma满de滑at触the窝sc腾hem疾ati屑ca畅nd蜓pre递lim壳ina牛ry葡lev越els缝,a脊nd匪the处sp浙eci锻fic枣so催ft渣he列fin搏al趁lev诱el押sho腥uld繁be忽su绳ch秋tha晒tg起ros静sr涌ede锄sig杂ni饺sn倚ot让in勒que元sti乖on,绸Ra尿the罗r,阔the母en弟tir痰ep晚roc救ess荣sh临oul淹db屋eo烘ne示of年mov忧ing砍in矩an陶ev破olu蜓tio且nar过yf商ash谎ion搏fr蹦om昂cre射ati喷on畅and恐re探fin泉eme曾nt盛(or缺mo果dif蚁ica击tio旺n)评of验the雪mo料re泽gen家era自lp睬rop步ert滩ies分of鸭a计tot近al-压sys玉tem挂de眨sig斑nc嘱onc允ept覆,t厌ot爷he兔fle箭shi纱ng芳out木of烂re知qui浓sit卵ee烤lem打ent抚sa设nd争det芹ail倾s.井To怀sum宗mar者ize怕:A副tL虚eve猪lI撞,t铅he篮arc窗hit纪ect替mu协st饶fir仍st部est阻abl台ish坝,i肾nc絮onc无ept绑ual洒te确rms罚,t刊he丸ove职ral闸ls住pac桂e-f培orm滥fe托asi锈bil货ity锹of膛ba歼sic锤sc古hem信ati她co迁pti纱ons孔.A茄tt厨his板st意age款,c狠oll距abo宅rat恒ion权wi裂th臭spe课cia潜lis羡ts验can虹be币he鸣lpf布ul,安bu隙to粪nly辨if如in锣th脸ef以orm牛of绘ov掘era拍ll泥thi朱nki互ng.窝At制Le蛾vel附II凳,t颈he仙arc额hit病ect昆mu扫st隙be摩abl嫩et让oi劝den躲tif趴yt偷he扰maj图or脆sub匙sys搂tem节re标qui鸦rem冷ent胆si趁mpl吓ied淡by弯th端es煮che棕me恼and馒su愤bst赏ant单ial找th柱eir堆in醒ter橡act闯ive首fe拢asi甘bil标ity殃by乓ap调pro毅xim积ati网ng诚key两co辜mpo院nen香tp闯rop册ert气ies犯.T遗hat帆is竖,t承he臣pro奇per翠tie路so锡fm直ajo呈rs摇ubs军yst妨ems丽ne王ed搂be萝wor概ked关ou谦to武nly兄in呈su抚ffi谈cie饮nt朝dep剥th闷to神ver雪yt恼he血inh兵ere诞nt诵com仪pat婶ibi拐lit涛yo工ft壁hei勾rb携asi罗cf生orm狱-re给lat块ed散and猪be践hav挨ior你al心int振era刃cti将on遥.T读his殊wi置ll概mea肤na匆so均mew床hat焦mo景re园spe屋cif该ic宰for维mo让fc供oll浴abo伯rat脚ion结wi赛th侦spe昼cia因lis敲ts景the隆nt挺hat东in抓le赏vel凉I次.At壁le怖vel讯II果I,啦the圣ar仗chi益tec荒ta端nd揉the锹sp宴eci毙fic板fo悬rm有of逼col税lab乒ora古tio烤nw巾ith辫sp均eci白ali拒sts纯th稳en肠tha麻tp叉rov映idi叮ng体for冬al筐lo很ft挠he右ele矮men胸tal逗de舍sig恰ns知pec元ifi久cs扒req刮uir垄ed横to等pro对duc伶eb盯idd狠abl颗ec蓬ons吊tru兴cti醒on冻doc仆ume表nts奉.示Of旦cou届rse建th质is弊suc博ces铃sc替ome毫sf候rom缓th元ed炼eve抖lop界men站to徒ft疤he捐Str肝uct期ura烘lM复ate追ria膜l.苹1.R垒ein钱for辰ced母Co们ncr椒ete茅生Pla碍in衣con杂cre犯te委is停for特med抛fr府om侨ah贼ard倦ene传dm躬ixt虫ure济of脊ce滋men躁t,裤wat度er婆,fi石ne谁agg韵reg念ate冶,c盗oar创se雀agg哭reg寺ate深(c暑rus帅hed慕st车one混or党gr唯ave母l),早air踢,a哄nd水oft孕en叶oth拍er处adm其ixt英ure被s.碰The患pl锦ast缩ic甩mix观is裕pl额ace细da脸nd凯con虏sol嫂ida剖ted章in医th骡ef呆orm酬wor额k,俊the楼nc险ure育dt萄of兆aci龄lit族ate旺th梨ea砌cce洽ler忆ati草on绵of咳the屯ch天emi伐cal粮hy犁dra闪tio哲nr谊eac语tio烘nl站ft嫌he摸cem经ent冈/wa骆ter概mi胀x,幼res胳ult访ing摔in颜ha我rde外ned勇co丙ncr小ete废.T缠he干fin看ish既ed配pro剧duc凝th锄as猪hig昌hc倦omp科res液siv玩es悦tre屈ngt潮h,补and陕lo您wr献esi拴sta计nce察to纺te石nsi常on,士su摩ch舱tha可ti船ts世ten宜sil蓝e劲str巧eng跳th因is蓄app谜rox屈ima纯tel挺yo队ne嫩ten余th借lf潮its坑co船mpr翁ess量ive轧st筒ren趋gth纯.C架ons陕equ族ent浇ly,康te杆nsi毛le遗and描sh玻ear亡re馒inf颂orc瓶eme菊nt蜘in坑the喷te难nsi技le凯reg贷ion旋so稍fs束ect竟ion阳sh案as龄to炉be剑pro参vid裂ed旗to崭com栽pen丙sat电ef眉or饥the疤we锅ak贺ten描sio业nr摸egi野ons视in胀th侮er如ein恶for呆ced怠co里ncr坐ete蹲el毯eme秩nt.汽煤It朱is财thi邻sd嚼evi枝ati礼on梳in厚the甚co繁mpo雕sit寻ion烘of穗a派rei榆nfo累rce行sc剧onc叶ret胃es将ect被ion夕fr肠om须the终ho炼mog费ene门ity骄of港st伟and节ard旁wo拴od坑or慕ste伶el辜sec岗tio杰ns虑tha径tr数equ晋ire构sa航mo滴dif辆ied肿ap隶pro胖ach锹to遵th喇eb救asi看cp誓rin毙cip傻les增of喂st凶ruc乖tur暗al斯des霞ign称.T哄he泰two乐co栗mpo产nen丈ts挑of纺the凯he鬼ter羊oge主neo拖us界rei虎nfo以rce膊dc啄onc裹ret认es每ect榨ion惑ar及et编ob稿es每oa森rra璃nge渐da废nd斑pro持por撑tio宜ned方th挖at些opt贡ima摇lu扎se火is透mad冻eo蝇ft挣he缎mat驰eri株als踏in召vol角ved恼.T孟his绘is遥po倒ssi穿ble赛be底cau蒙se点con钓cre凝te葡can写ea祝sil爷yb推eg歉ive卫na仍ny辩des省ire哗ds焦hap锈eb浅yp姥lac暂ing昂an幼dc别omp系act斜ing冰th龄ew霜et矛mix包tur糟eo砍ft享he孙con招sti逃tue睛nt隶ing捷red界ien两ts麦are势pr游ope村rly愤pr荐opo泥rti沸one绣d,糠the铃fi巾nis杯hed逐pr忙odu默ct否bec券ome咸ss株tro椅ng,迫du山rab裁le,听an罪d,艰in锣com解bin段ati喊on门wit给ht耳he槽rei妖nfo芬rci蚀ng扬bar症s,药ada博pta科ble礼fo维ru甜se迎as途mai戒nm刻emb牧ers投of检an气ys帖tru伏ctu胳ral示sy深ste篇m.标The堪te魂chn求iqu钓es呀nec妄ess葡ary总fo勾rp溉lac贩ing光co匪ncr蝇ete糕de扎pen屿do弄nt壶he匙typ淘eo聋fm急emb阳er泰to抓be剥cas祖t:您tha语ti程s,暮whe帝the谨ri书ti仙sa样co亭lum死n,驾ab引ean办,a修wa挂ll,亩a您sla掘b,依af库oun祖dat告ion堤.a偏ma驾ss鸣col童umn蜜s,循or锯an乳ext乘ens溉ion速of昼pr迎evi部ous榆ly利pla层ced伸an赶dh炎ard默ene灵dc有onc写ret逆e.南For刃be挥ams晌,c弃olu采mns驱,a用nd叨wal柔ls,肺th任ef岩orm非ss传hou裳ld召be象wel军lo行ile支da酱fte社rc杀lea沉nin悄gt窄hem塌,a到nd携the应re答inf亲orc讲eme牢nt衡sho黑uld贷be丧cl犬ear谋ed挽of杀rus滴ta比nd语oth蝴er嗽har弦mfu密lm道ate耽ria撞ls.爱In偿fo深und壤ati岗ons处,t倍he泥ear幻th展sho告uld贷be诚co悬mpa拐cte犹da晋nd娘tho缩rou忍ghl轨ym晴ois混ten离ed牢to详abo朋ut应6i厉n.榜in井dep记th惹to材avo芽id狡abs耗orp绑tio蚂no赴ft料he舟moi垦stu者re锐pre杆sen茫ti豪nt励he蹲wet事co斯ncr赛ete昆.C衣onc鼓ret克es纸hou娇ld减alw举ays谷be恐pl乘ace翻di幻nh象ori输zon症tal垒la余yer蜻sw巷hic筹ha容re坦com烘pac器ted樱by隔me朱ans鼻of诱hi烟gh逆fre尸que危ncy须po兰wer概-dr古ive道nv哗ibr膀ato招rs纳of贱eit阳her诉th颈ei帅mme贼rsi蓬on棚or阅ext雾ern雄al加typ蒙e,忘as偿the尿ca尘se见req容uir碰es,恐un玉les锐si忧ti释sp锁lac畏ed修by码pum嘉pin悲g.步It魔mus阁tb晕ek垂ept饭in乎mi辞nd,筝ho最wev扫er,铲th析at阻ove瓣rv纸ibr耽ati帖on性can清be删ha伞rmf拦ul湖sin生ce艳it捏cou搏ld箱cau肃se流seg碧reg易ati驰on令of议the危ag献gre叮gat银ea愁nd驳ble湖edi讽ng泻of回the例co禁ncr难ete提.晚Hyd宝rat泰ion怀of魂th怠ec矿eme蛮nt逮tak裤es队pla射ce涨in凝the裳pr臂ese夹nce蜂of睁mo错ist纳ure节at恋te听mpe碑rat军ure周sa烛bov会e5比0°F监.I霸ti冶sn艳ece坊ssa役ry弯to谷mai朵nta忍in磁suc快ha妇co浪ndi伍tio卖ni篮no否rde双rt近hat鱼th连ec嗽hem蒸ica罗lh魄ydr域ati叶on怠rea元cti概on住can纠ta踢ke侮pla抓ce.膛If恋dr抓yin壁gi秃st总oo丝rap拿id,兽su弱rfa魔ce责cra苦cki弦ng址tak针es誓pla灿ce.繁Th册is折wou男ld防res项ult员in搜re喇duc快tio腐no宾fc篇onc防ret薯es钩tre趁ngt许hd适ue嘴to屋cra征cki松ng邪as讯wel络la牧st疑he肆fai旺lur玩et践oa锹tta叶in竹ful省lc野hem麻ica然lh患ydr踪ati销on.嫌片It延is柔cle题ar阻tha粥ta般la循rge岂nu团mbe督ro臣fp胞ara痰met落ers丽ha棒ve局to狡be罗dea孝lt教wit恐hi丧np焰rop妨ort卧ion饮ing谎a慢rei悦nfo叠rce呈dc奇onc养ret过ee灾lem哭ent气,s糖uch臣as夫ge缝ome畏tri惠cal缎wi治dth册,d昂ept站h,蜡are恭ao践f堡rei部nfo肤rce其men案t,灵ste搜el咬str梦ain阔,c挣onc扇ret俯es工tra愈in,使st换eel爱st馆res徒s,忠and条so道on迷.C安ons皮equ拢ent挥ly,罚tr狸ial扭an翅da喉dju姨stm蚀ent俭is携ne木ces达sar倚yi胀nt纷he房cho斧ice电of势co断ncr态ete照se肺cti剂ons谈,w当ith资as见sum苗pti尘ons步ba具sed蛙on榴co伏ndi晴tio出ns坛at逆sit赢e,岩ava顷ila款bil隆ity融of诊th照ec近ons府tit峰uen餐tm越ate扁ria聚ls,杨pa贿rti应cul添ar经dem幼and悲so榴ft禁he近own秧ers魔,a绍rch种ite酒ctu啄ral夫an国dh缎ead零roo流mr莲equ咱ire袜men毕ts,汉th低ea织ppl醉ica访ble油co搏des贤,a杨nd泻env剩iro泉nme存nta顽lr的ein鹊for女ced管co男ncr屈ete加is卷of列ten救a到sit跌e-c金ons俯tru煌cte因dc畜omp房osi葵te,路in士co重ntr烟ast瘦to殖th贸es午tan出dar滋dm胶ill到-fa认bri循cat商ed临bea趁ma赌nd扭col漠umn拼se也cti写ons敢in田st鼠eel懒st愿ruc腰tur面es.本涌At阶ria赛ls痰ect液ion济ha进st各ob完ec罩hos炊en史for妹ea挺ch瘦cri乒tic乐al铁loc趁ati签on腾in步as然tru睁ctu牙ral相sy楼ste蔽m.界The但tr傲ial膝崖sec捐tio澡nh过as趋to只be择ana刚lyz竹ed歼to燃det诉erm贼ine课if省it肺sn纠omi帐nal圆re赛sis津tin吃gs凡tre疲ngt拨hi略sa邀deq平uat控et罗oc性arr犹yt冰he亿app惊lie煌df阔act乌ore泻dl辆oad垦.S附inc瓦em粱ore置th先an治one川tr洒ial陡is亩of腥ten洒ne镰ces嘴sar研yt是oa剩rri充ve庆at棚the路re柄qui忙red贞se蒸cti带on,刃th难ef工irs熄td享esi当gn列inp腐ut狠ste氧pg哈ene革rat脉es简int绵oa樱se劣rie陡so姻ft百ria爱l-a犬nd-姑adj滔ust款men挤ta姥nal愧yse响s.桶The软tr悄ial球-an重d崇食–摔adj怕ust狼men极tp勺roc唉edu僵res禾fo直rt绞he煎cho扯ice递of穿a犬con靠cre桶te杏sec俯tio躲nl芦ead抽to酬th嫩ec与onv妄erg猎enc营eo折fa眯nal谷ysi借sa子nd象des爆ign蝴.H容enc蔬ee脆ver绑yd皇esi浓gn饥is谁an雁ana篇lys母is遮onc狐ea素tr罗ial播se出cti象on更is静cho使sen启.T并he疼ava仿ila砍bil般ity驼of杠ha掏ndb冲ook趋s,趴cha话rts类,a以nd产per减son值al面com芦put励ers医an守dp循rog酱ram伍ss裤upp夹ort俭st张his设ap便pro是ach质as宇a凡mor毯ee宋ffi丝cie工nt,取co殿mpa五ct,则an漫ds装pee既dy注ins泉tru拼cti怕ona裳lm馅eth金od悼com咬par迅ed挪wit故ht桂he颂tra绸dit列ion崭al择app啦roa陆ch潜of精tre络ati爹ng曲the恰an异aly造sis螺of您re乳inf岔orc顷ed断con省cre滚te准sep门ara音tel观yf期rom欧pu扫re捉des玻ign毒.幅2.粥Ear踪thw旗ork欢软Bec亦aus想ee洋art宽hmo色vin慌gm吼eth丧ods哀an丙dc光ost疑sc础han蜓ge呆mor挑eq晓uic贵kly毛th克an怜tho蹄se椒in欠any秒ot妻her赶br蛛anc依ho欲fc浪ivi遭le里ngi卸nee族rin榆g,运thi料si团sa晶fi沫eld砍wh漂ere缴th朱ere生ar缴er补eal军op蝴por老tun景iti壮es贴for惰th模ee领nth液usi忍ast拆.I恋n1涨935赌mo胡st计of诊the飞me逝tho乐ds春now炊in衔us迎ef走or符car岗ryi腰ng勉and晶ex蛙cav冤ati纤ng栋ear衣th衣wit圈hr抄ubb你er-示typ湿ed即equ秧ipm刮ent肃di及dn扣ot符exi童st.秋Mo鞋st鼠ear消th俭was烘mo轨ved际by狭na忽rro渗wr滨ail惭tr五ack忠,n能ow淹rel羞ati董vel疫yr闲are屋,a吨nd福the苍ma顿in只met宫hod木so棚fe贿xca面vat舌ion离,w染ith迁fa昨ce治sho缓vel束,b盛ack厘pac你ker歪,o全rd牢rag驾lin受eo竹rg京rab寿,t值hou核gh龄the背ya友re汉sti帖ll打wid软ely矮us愉ed堪are援on搏ly蔑af那ew刘of泡the饺ma本ny横cur住ren凯tm狐eth惨ods莲.T肯ok谷eep良hi慧sk糊now所led辈ge勇of栏ear径thm轮ovi傍ng缩equ谈ipm神ent帜up奶to晓da仪te走an遍eng等ine奏er校mus侦tt齿her济efo汗re琴spe业nd摩tin投es沃tud嘴yin揉gm静ode始rn威mac咳hin膀es.辩Ge称ner袖all肯yt落he险onl绩yr风eli秃abl犁eu或p-t若o-d造ate毛in姥for场mat冰ion衔on泄ex草cav纵ato煮rs,朵lo场ade猛rs机and侍tr眼ans您por幅ti旧so荒bta鲜ina雀ble财fr庙om漫the秤ma驱ker朝s.秩Ear苍thw梯ork饱so虹re黎art者hmo窜vin捉gm垦ean疼sc睛utt差ing穿in手to柳gro尾und牺wh惹ere府it掉ss锦urf遗ace石is挖to惠oh单igh损(球cut敞s)绿,a左nd茧dum搏pin勿gt习he宾ear费th牌in缝oth三er氧pla今ces兽wh渔ere痰th峡es苗urf坡ace咸is恶to材ol宋ow挪(f星ill宰s).邮Tr昂adu骡ce评ear雾thw顶ork巷co倘sts完,t贪he款vol川ume歇of购th磁ef锦ill裕ss扔hou谦ld休be扁equ凶al组to忽the申vo狂lum粮eo过ft泽he斗cut枯sa折nd楚whe蜘rev念er晋pos终sib悦le赞the谦cu趋ts础sho雁uld冰be灿pl班ace唤dn壳ear夏to警fi汽lls婆of扇eq枪ual根vo狸lum漏es迫oa瞒st粥or舟edu抢ce扶tra旦nsp绘ort丹an都dd虾oub逗le独han跨dli权ng筋of勉the竿fi压ll.验Th佳is提wor冈ko幼fe书art斩hwo臭rk而des也ign坐fa珍lls单on融th他ee纱ngi雁nee紫rw具ho位lay盘so轻ut说the火ro晌ad偏sin弟ce演it笋is建the斑la膏you搅to赢ft唉he比ear接thw淋ork病mo亲re哗tha腐na祝nyt讯hin头ge争lse妇wh暖ich荐de适cid费es莫its挡ch岔eap扣nes忘s.炒Fro南mt葡he逮ava桐ila普ble架ma描ps耳and供le秤vel哨s,疏the宪en喂gin丧eer供ing遇mu浊st谦try悼to槽re胖ach彼as界ma零ny堤dec杂isi闪ons腥as附po肢ssi破ble草in都th钥ed由raw勺ing拣of之fic葛eb识yd办raw积ing姻cr绢oss添se均cti诸ons消of削th婆ee润art铲hwo痕rk.邀On翠th献es搭ite滚wh谣en茎fur邀the污ri擦nfo全rma应tio配nb骑eco残mes蹦av裤ail语abl兴eh勇ec咳an魄mak茶ec旱han县ges揪in秧ji剑gs目ect业ion怀sa院nd鉴lay什ou析t.瞒but轧th填ed槐raw观ing杯of朝fic繁ew未ork晶wi弊ll饶not湖ha创ve减bee诵nl午ost远.I株tw握ill奉ha慈ve熔hel倘ped替hi分mt谅or蛋eac名ht欠he僵bes好ts汁olu轿tio脊ni悉nt狐he恶sho剂rte贞st估tim呈e.余The俩ch夺eap望est漠wa喷yo滨fm够ovi颗ng疮ear忙th恢is载to鞭tak将ei册td业ire铃ctl鲜yo到ut促of奶the雁cu卵ta促nd融dro迷pi疯ta撒sf劣ill柳wi邻th阀the邪sa笛me甚mac脊hin色e.铃Thi互si荣sn究ot震alw葡ays池po每ssi孩ble且,b吹ut傲whe移ni江tc园an荒be得don壁ei撒ti搂si蔽dea胆l,童bei国ng井bot照hq译uic凭ka喷nd托che本ap.搭Dr摘agl紫ine最s,争bul喘ldo抗zer甩sa廊nd乏fac性es咽hov果els跨an颜do习th屠is.旅Th坦el佣arg逼est抄ra费diu遵si炕so形bta利ine急dw氏ith急th杨ed剥rag切lin绍e,耳and椅th痒el凳arg躲est煮to避nna揭ge伤of势ear锦th摧is内mov秤ed派by锹the稀bu缺lld殃oze竹r,很tho腿ugh梯送onl望yo示ver捐sh纤ort酬di意sta侍nce社s.备The狐di钢sad皇van熊tag捞es财of惠the定dr宏agl礼ine邮ar秋et尘hat狂it羡mu敏st聚dig泡be贼low摩it孟sel猾f,秩it灶can预not狱di师gw怠ith刻fo劝rce妥in盐to依com为pac鸡ted政ma别ter愧ial坟,i抄tc驻ann莫ot取dig剑on糕st欢eep吹sl巡ows西,a啊nd箩its伪du翠mpi屑ng挤and戚di膜ggi窑ng棋are确no背ta均ccu耀rat倦e.漂Fac室es秤hov惯els查ar辟eb甲etw忽een献bu谷lld慎oze乔rs湾and的dr戏agl趟ine犁s,薪hav盗ing残a从lar奉ger作ra可diu庙so选fa眯cti却on认tha莫nb妨ull隶doz他ers袖bu胃tl粗ess帮th太an失dra形gli镜nes萍.T懂hey材ar蜂ea苦ngl椅et评od佳ig远int质oa失ve盖rti奏cal每cl学iff冶fa仓ce敬in袄aw边ay认whi央ch尊wou俘ld棋be贱dan倒ger展ous捆to乔ra仔bu办lld畏oze滚ro陆per够ato宪ra动nd多imp牛oss储ibl冶ef至or泥ad锁rag级lin挨e.灿Eac因hp奉iec原eo动fe吃qui掀pme蛾nt壤sho票uld揉be籍le须vel循of召th海eir非tr确ack新sa缩nd门for宪de统ep毙dig唐si漠nc菠omp践act竭ma叶ter炼ial迎a朝bac臂kpa项cke棉ri芽sm剑ost罩us瞒efu该l,蔑but屡it牢sd夹ump颈ing龙ra馅diu借si赤sc坑ons漏ide叮rab擦ly捕les鸽st遮han举th外at三of闪the头sa掌me窝exc糠ava境tor隆fi恭tte孩dw猛ith督a捎fac脱es默hov膜el.桂劣Rub冠ber发-ty惜ped锁bo它wl愚scr继ape奋rs比are跳in环dis炉pen导sab熄le旗for状fa悼irl遗yl烟eve没ld水igg池ing拳wh饮ere猪th卧ed包ist颗anc灿eo挣ft水ran阶spo凝rt局is辅too静mu眨ch寿tor仪a午dra咳gli腐ne蕉or蚀fac斗es问hov很el.族Th隙ey盘can匪di脆gt盖he肠mat拾eri旷al云dee坊ply广(阵but墙on仰ly床bel澡ow鱼the乖mse索lve盛s)陪to森a三fai拔rly姐fl周at绑sur咽fac驶e,谊car顺ry清it浓hun凡dre兄ds耕of姑met降ers蚕if蚕ne亏ed侨be,萄th眨en养dro疮pi降ta币nd怪lev斧el关it孩rou舞ghl仇yd渗uri敲ng汽the瓣du忆mpi妨ng.愤Fo挣rh俯ard符di梦ggi浓ng笛it松is纪oft萍en岭fou都nd弊eco贸nom清ica居lt犁ok沃eep奉a咬pus检her庙tr箩act文or肿(w农hee冷led针or顷tr忧ack私ed辈)o于nt钟he旦dig淹gin践gs沾ite颈,t惰op土ush老ea封ch事scr经ape起ra渠si驰tr初etu乐rns坊to客di逼g.计As掌soo榜na宅st视he巩scr南ape佩ri悠sf柿ull畜,t日he践pus吓her读tr悠act手or疮ret歉urn道st包ot恰he拜beg纽inn台ing尝of勉th益ed润ig薄to锅hea瘦pt宏oh翅elp虫th网en景est棋sc拢rap矿er.夏像Bow坡ls枣cra需per握sa带re序oft搬en槐ext昏rem颠ely损po该wer粒ful颈ma适chi吐nes肉;m斩any徒ma龙ker耐sb僻uil昆ds童cra兄per库so防f8下cu动bic松me别ter炮ss膊tru泥ck排cap顺aci距ty,织wh涌ich笛ca牛rry葱10此m姥³h到eap筛ed.贱Th哈el挥arg邻est千se染lf-槽pro屯pel即led勺sc割rap翁ers寿ar必eo躁f1酱9m部³洁str类uck蝇ca求pac花ity吴(慢25怕m³件he辞ape逝d)穴and斑th餐ey尽are柄dr宏ive朋nb导ya塑tr维act碌or葡eng荡ine自of脊43舞0h型ors考e-p套owe室rs.宋晕Dum固per思sa涌re阳pro遮bab缓ly税the强co理mmo摇nes葵tr士ubb诸er-疼typ岂ed坟tra填nsp蝶ort树si希nce悔th肿ey增can散al走so各con鹿ven杰ien炕tly锄be借us更ed末for五ca耻rry滔ing经co读ncr叮ete邀or召ot惹her尘bu委ild膛ing勺ma探ter樱ial哨s.面Dum需per降sh准ave溜th爹ee漆art径hc他ont禁ain尸er蛮ove舞rt射he舒fro芽nt深axl夕eo虎nl辱arg窑er教ubb搅er-念typ匆ed兆whe沙els势,a择nd零the北co守nta绞ine伴rt厅ips翁fo谢rwa澡rds卡on质mo兆st浴typ动es,封th残oug平hi忘na玉rti残cul爽ate滑dd叹ump跳ers蚀th碍ed牲ire退cti肚on倾of衡tip与ca写nb中ew扰ide尾ly咽var滚ied进.T培he没sma稳lle恶st处dum苍per汉sh倡ave冲a抵cap流aci笨ty同of宋abo线ut帜0.5申m迫³,谈and面th尝el铜arg榜est揭st耕and名ard圆ty条pes卵ar社eo骑fa扣bou裂t4驾.5旺m³塑.S幻pec模ial砌ty神pes磨in构clu红de残the什se闭lf-网loa牺din径gd纯ump胜er书of哨up菌to脊4m仁³灯and繁th修ea骆rti握cul只ate踪dt所ype殖of梅ab慈out即0.滚5m稍³.屑Th配ed项ist狂inc乔tio讯nb寄etw闪een隆du双mpe竟rs径and易du杜mp难tru费cks傅mu控st够be利rem跃emb康ere叙d.慎dum焦per匠st挖ip踏for捞war跌ds里and愈th臂ed族riv觉er米sit积sb视ehi欣nd钓the初lo解ad.盘Du寸mp耍tru套cks均ar沫eh松eav明y,秋str贞eng守the触ned垦ti拒ppi握ng文lor萝rie活s,昨the月dr颤ive哗rt击rav观els颠in热fr准ont门lf叠th纵el童oad歌an因dt秀he播loa应di影sd脉ump谅ed蜻beh与ind绞hi冷m,纳so仔the僵ya武re冰som阴eti亲mes猪ca寿lle判dr拴ear帆-du剥mp闲tru肃cks立.3.SafetyofStructuresTheprincipalscopeofspecificationsistoprovidegeneralprinciplesandcomputationalmethodsinordertoverifysafetyofstructures.The“safetyfactor”,whichaccordingtomoderntrendsisindependentofthenatureandcombinationofthematerialsused,canusuallybedefinedastheratiobetweentheconditions.Thisratioisalsoproportionaltotheinverseoftheprobability(risk)offailureofthestructure.Failurehastobeconsiderednotonlyasoverallcollapseofthestructurebutalsoasin-serviceabilityor,accordingtoamoreprecise.Commondefinition.Asthereachingofa“limitstate”whichcausestheconstructionnottoaccomplishthetaskitwasdesignedfor.Therearetwocategoriesoflimitstate:(1)Ultimatelimitsate,whichcorrespondstothehighestvalueoftheload-bearingcapacity.Examplesincludelocalbucklingorglobalinstabilityofthestructure;failureofsomesectionsandsubsequenttransformationofthestructureintoamechanism;failurebyfatigue;elasticorplasticdeformationorcreepthatcauseasubstantialchangeofthegeometryofthestructure;andsensitivityofthestructuretoalternatingloads,tofireandtoexplosions.(2)Servicelimitstates,whicharefunctionsoftheuseanddurabilityofthestructure.Examplesincludeexcessivedeformationsanddisplacementswithoutinstability;earlyorexcessivecracks;largevibrations;andcorrosion.Computationalmethodsusedtoverifystructureswithrespecttothedifferentsafetyconditionscanbeseparatedinto:(1)Deterministicmethods,inwhichthemainparametersareconsideredasnonrandomparameters.(2)Probabilisticmethods,inwhichthemainparametersareconsideredasrandomparameters.Alternatively,withrespecttothedifferentuseoffactorsofsafety,computationalmethodscanbeseparatedinto:(1)Allowablestressmethod,inwhichthestressescomputedundermaximumloadsarecomparedwiththestrengthofthematerialreducedbygivensafetyfactors.(2)Limitstatesmethod,inwhichthestructuremaybeproportionedonthebasisofitsmaximumstrength.Thisstrength,asdeterminedbyrationalanalysis,shallnotbelessthanthatrequiredtosupportafactoredloadequaltothesumofthefactoredliveloadanddeadload(ultimatestate).Thestressescorrespondingtoworking(service)conditionswithunfilteredliveanddeadloadsarecomparedwithprescribedvalues(servicelimitstate).Fromthefourpossiblecombinationsofthefirsttwoandsecondtwomethods,wecanobtainsomeusefulcomputationalmethods.Generally,twocombinationsprevail:(1)deterministicmethods,whichmakeuseofallowablestresses.(2)Probabilisticmethods,whichmakeuseoflimitstates.Themainadvantageofprobabilisticapproachesisthat,atleastintheory,itispossibletoscientificallytakeintoaccountallrandomfactorsofsafety,babilisticapproachesdependupon:(1)Randomdistributionofstrengthofmaterialswithrespecttotheconditionsoffabricationanderection(scatterofthevaluesofmechanicalpropertiesthroughoutthestructure);(2)Uncertaintyofthegeometryofthecross-sectionsandofthestructure(faultsandimperfectionsduetofabricationanderectionofthestructure);(3)Uncertaintyofthepredictedliveloadsanddeadloadsactingonthestructure;(4)Uncertaintyrelatedtotheapproximationofthecomputationalmethodused(deviationoftheactualstressesfromcomputedstresses).Furthermore,probabilistictheoriesmeanthattheallowableriskcanbebasedonseveralfactors,suchas:(1)Importanceoftheconstructionandgravityofthedamagebyitsfailure;(2)Numberofhumanliveswhichcanbethreatenedbythisfailure;(3)Possibilityand/orlikelihoodofrepairingthestructure;(4)Predictedlifeofthestructure.Allthesefactorsarerelatedtoeconomicandsocialconsiderationssuchas：(1)Initialcostoftheconstruction;(2)Amortizationfundsforthedurationoftheconstruction;(3)Costofphysicalandmaterialdamageduetothefailureoftheconstruction;(4)Adverseimpactonsociety;(5)Moralandpsychologicalviews.Thedefinitionofalltheseparameters,foragivensafetyfactor,allowsconstructionattheoptimumcost.However,thedifficultyofcarryingoutacompleteprobabilisticanalysishastobetakenintoaccount.Forsuchananalysisthelawsofthedistributionoftheliveloadanditsinducedstresses,ofthescatterofmechanicalpropertiesofmaterials,andofthegeometryofthecross-sectionsandthestructurehavetobeknown.Furthermore,itisdifficulttointerprettheinteractionbetweenthelawofdistributionofstrengthandthatofstressesbecausebothdependuponthenatureofthematerial,onthecross-sectionsandupontheloadactingonthestructure.Thesepracticaldifficultiescanbeovercomeintwoways.Thefirstistoapplydifferentsafetyfactorstothematerialandtotheloads,withoutnecessarilyadoptingtheprobabilisticcriterion.Thesecondisanapproximateprobabilisticmethodwhichintroducessomesimplifyingassumptions(semi-probabilisticmethods).4.TraditionalConstructionProceduresAsmentionedbefore,constructionunderthetraditionalconstructionprocedureisperformedbycontractors.Whiletheywouldliketosatisfytheownerandthebuildingdesigners,contractorshavethemainobjectiveofmakingaprofit.Hence,theirinitialtaskistoprepareabidpricebasedonanaccurateestimateofconstructioncosts.Thisrequiresdevelopmentofaconceptforperformanceoftheworkandaconstructiontimeschedule.Afteracontracthasbeenawarded,contractorsmustfurnishandpayforallmaterials,equipment,power,labor,andsupervisionrequiredforconstruction.Theownercompensatesthecontractorsforconstructioncostsandservices.Ageneralcontractorassumesoverallresponsibilityforconstructionofabuilding.Thecontractorengagessubcontractorswhotakeresponsibilityfortheworkofthevarioustradesrequiredforconstruction.Forexample,aplumbingcontractorinstallstheplumbing,anelectricalcontractorinstallstheelectricalsystem,andanelevatorcontractorinstallselevators.Theircontractsarewiththegeneralcontractor,andtheyarepaidbythegeneralcontractor.Sometimes,inadditiontoageneralcontractor,theownercontractsseparatelywithspecialtycontractors,suchaselectricalandmechanicalcontractors,whoperformasubstantialamountoftheworkrequireforabuilding.Suchcontractorsarecalledprimecontractors.Theirworkisscheduledandcoordinatedbythegeneralcontractor,buttheyarepaiddirectlybytheowner.Sometimesalso,theownermayusethedesign-buildmethodandawardacontracttoanorganizationforboththedesignandconstructionofabuilding.Suchorganizationsarecalleddesign-buildcontractors.Onevariationofthistypeofcontractisemployedbydevelopersofgroupsofone-familyhomesorlow-riseapartmentbuildings.Thehomebuilderdesignsandconstructsthedwellings,butthedesignissubstantiallycompletedbeforeownerspurchasethehomes.Administrationoftheconstructionprocedureoftenisdifficult.Consequently,someownersseekassistancefromanexpert,calledaprofessionalconstructionmanager,withextensiveconstructionexperience,whoreceivesafee.Theconstructionmanagernegotiateswithgeneralcontractorsandhelpsselectonetoconstructthebuilding.Managersusuallyalsosuperviseselectionofsubcontractors.Duringconstruction,theyhelpcontrolcosts,expediteequipmentandmaterialdeliveries,andkeeptheworkonschedule.Insomecases,instead,theownermaypreferoengageaconstructionprogrammanager,toassistinadministratingbothdesignandconstruction.Constructioncontractorsemploylaborthatmayormaynotbeunionized.Unionizedcraftspeoplearemembersofunionsthatareorganizedbyconstructiontrades,suchascarpenter,plumber,andelectricianunions,Unionmemberswillperformonlytheworkassignedtotheirtrade.Duringconstruction,allworkshouldbeinspected.Forthispurpose,theowner,oftenthroughthearchitectandconsultants,engagesinspectors.Thefieldinspectorsmaybeplacedunderthecontrolofanowner’srepresentative,whomaybetitledclerkoftheworks,architect’ssuperintendent,engineer’ssuperintendent,orresidentengineer.Theinspectorshavetheresponsibilityofensuringthatconstructionmeetstherequirementsofthecontractdocumentsandisperformedundersafeconditions.Suchinspectionsmaybemadeatfrequentintervals.Inaddition,inspectionsalsoaremadebyrepresentativesofoneormoregovernmentalagencies.Theyhavetheresponsibilityofensuringthatconstructionmeetslegalrequirementsandhavelittleornoconcernwithdetailedconformancewiththecontractdocuments.Suchlegalinspectionsaremadeperiodicallyorattheendofcertainstagesofconstruction.Oneagencythatwillmakefrequentinspectionsisthelocalorstatebuildingdepartment,whicheverhasjurisdiction.Thepurposeoftheseinspectionsistoensureconformancewiththeloca