2023学年完整公开课版Lecture12Lifelongdevelopment

Lecture12:LifespanDevelopmentDevelopmentalPsychologyWhatshapesthewaywechangeovertime?FocusonpsychologicalchangesacrosstheentirelifespanEveryareaofpsychologycanbelookedatfromthisperspectivebiologicaldevelopmentsocialdevelopmentcognitive/perceptualdevelopmentpersonalitydevelopmentNaturevs.NurtureWhatisroleofheredityvs.environmentindeterminingpsychologicalmakeup?IsIQinheritedordeterminedearlyenvironment?Istherea‘criminal’gene?Issexualorientationachoiceorgeneticallydetermined?ThesearesomeofourgreatestsocietaldebatesMistaketoposeas“either/or”questionsIsDevelopmentContinuous?Developmentmeanschange;changecanbeabruptorgradualTwoviewsofhumandevelopmentstagetheories:therearedistinctphasestointellectualandpersonalitydevelopmentcontinuity:developmentiscontinuousCriticalPeriodCriticalperiod—Arethereperiodswhenanindividualisparticularlysensitivetocertainenvironmentalexperiences?Arethefirsthoursafterbirthcriticalforparent-childbonding?Isfirstyearcriticalfordevelopingtrust?Easiertolearnalanguagebeforeage10?OverviewofGeneticsHumanshave23pairsofchromosomesChromosomesarelongtwistedstrands

ofDNADNAisthechemicalbasisofheredity

andcarriesinstructionsGenesarethebasicunitofheredity;

singleunitofDNAonthechromosomeDominantandRecessiveGenotype—underlyinggeneticmakeupPhenotype—traitsthatareexpressedDominantgenes—willalwaysbeexpressedifpresentRecessivegenes—willnotbeexpressedunlesstheyareinapairSexLinkedTraitsTraitslinkedtotheXorY(sex)chromosomesUsuallyrecessiveandcarriedontheXchromosomeAppearmorefrequentlyinonesexthananotherColorblindness,baldness,hemophilia,FragileXPhysicalandPsychologicalDevelopmentRelated PhysicaldevelopmentbeginsatconceptionPhysicalmaturitysetslimitsonpsychologicalabilityvisualsystemnotfullyfunctionalatbirthlanguagesystemnotfunctionaluntillaterPrenatalenvironmentcanhavelifetimeinfluenceonhealthandintellectualabilityPrenatalDevelopmentConception—whenaspermpenetratestheovumZygote—afertilizedeggGerminalperiod—firsttwoweeksafterconceptionEmbryonicperiod—weeksthreethrough

eightafterconceptionFetalperiod—twomonthsafterconception

untilbirth8weekembryoPrenatalInfluences

onDevelopmentNutritionAnxietyMother’sgeneralhealthMaternalageTeratogens—anyagentthatcauses

abirthdefect(e.g.,drugs,radiation,viruses)DrugstoAvoidOverthecounterAlcoholCocaineHeroineNicotineAspirinExcessvitaminsInfantAbilities InfantsarebornwithimmaturevisualsystemcandetectmovementandlargeobjectsOthersensesfunctionwellonday1willorienttosoundsturnawayfromunpleasantodorsprefersweettosourtastesBornwithanumberofreflexbehaviorsInfantReflexesRooting—turningtheheadandopeningthemouthinthedirectionofatouchonthecheekSucking—suckingrhythmicallyinresponsetooralstimulationGrasping—curlingthefingersaroundanobjectSocialandPersonalityDevelopmentTemperament--inbornpredispositiontoconsistentlybehaveandreactinacertainwayAttachment--emotionalbondbetweeninfantandcaregiverTypesofTemperamentEasy—adaptable,positivemood,regularhabitsSlowtowarmup—lowactivity,somewhatslowtoadapt,generallywithdrawfromnewsituationsDifficult—intenseemotions,irritable,cryfrequentlyAverage—unabletoclassify(1/3ofallchildren)QualityofAttachmentParentswhoareconsistentlywarm,responsive,andsensitivetotheinfant’sneedsusuallyhaveinfantswhoaresecurelyattachedParentswhoareneglectful,inconsistent,orinsensitivetoinfant’sneedsusuallyhaveinfantswhoareinsecurelyattachedAinsworth’sStrangeSituationUsedtostudyqualityofattachmentininfantsObservechild’sreactionwhenmotherispresentwiththechildina“strange”roomObservethechild’sreactionwhenmotherleavesObservesthechild’sreactionwhenmotherreturnsBaumrind’sParentingStylesAuthoritarian—valueobedienceand

useahighdegreeofpowerassertionAuthoritative—lessconcernedwithobedience,greateruseofinductionPermissive—mosttolerant,leastlikely

tousedisciplineNeglectful—completelyuninvolvedLanguageDevelopmentNoamChomskyassertsthateverychildisbornwithabiologicalpredispositiontolearnlanguage“universalgrammar”Mothereseorinfantdirectedspeech--styleofspeechusedbyadults(mostlyparents)inallculturestotalktobabiesandchildrenLanguageDevelopmentInfantpreferenceforhumanspeechoverothersoundsbefore6monthscanheardifferencesusedinalllanguagesafter6monthsbegintohearonlydifferencesusedinnativelanguageCooing—vowelsoundsproduced2–4monthsBabbling—consonant/vowelsoundsbetween

4to6monthsEvendeafinfantscooandbabbleLanguageDevelopmentMONTH SpeechCharacteristic

2 Cooingvowelsounds4 Babblingconsonant/vowel10 Babblingnativelanguagesounds12 One-wordstage24 Two-wordstage24+ Sentences

YoungChildren’sVocabularyComprehensionvocabulary--wordsthattheinfantorchildunderstandsProductionvocabulary--wordsthattheinfantorchildunderstandsandcanspeakGenderRoleDevelopmentGender—cultural,social,andpsychologicalmeaningsassociatedwithmasculinityorfemininityGenderroles—varioustraitsdesignatedeithermasculineorfeminineinagivencultureGenderidentity—Aperson’spsychologicalsenseofbeingmaleorfemaleBetweenages2-3years,childrencanidentifythemselvesandotherchildrenasboysorgirls.Theconceptofgenderorsex,is,however,basedmoreonoutwardcharacteristicssuchasclothing.GenderDifferencesToddlergirlstendtoplaymorewithdollsandaskforhelpmorethanboysToddlerboystendtoplaymorewithtrucksandwagons,andtoplaymoreactivelyAfterage3yearsweseeconsistentgenderdifferencesinpreferredtoysandactivitiesChildrenaremorerigidinsex-rolestereotypesthanadultsSocialLearningTheoryGenderrolesareacquiredthroughthebasicprocessesoflearning,includingreinforcement,punishment,andmodelingGenderSchemaTheoryGender-roledevelopmentisinfluencedbytheformationofschemas,ormentalrepresentations,ofmasculinityandfemininityChildrenactivelydevelopmentalcategoriesofmasculinityadfemininityandcategorizetheseintogendercategoriesorschemasTrucksareforboysanddollsareforgirlsisanexampleofagenderschemaPiaget’sTheoryof

CognitiveDevelopmentJeanPiaget(1896–1980)Swisspsychologistwhobecameleadingtheoristin1930sPiagetbelievedthat“childrenareactivethinkers,constantlytryingtoconstructmoreadvancedunderstandingsoftheworld”CognitivedevelopmentisastageprocessQualitativeDifferenceinThinkingAssimilation—processoftakinginnewknowledgeoranewexperienceAccommodation—processbywhichwechangeourwayofthinkingbecauseofnewknowledgeTheseprocessesbuildontheknowledgeofpreviousstagesPiaget’sApproachPrimarymethodwastoaskchildrentosolveproblemsandtoquestionthemaboutthereasoningbehindtheirsolutionsDiscoveredthatchildrenthinkinradicallydifferentwaysthanadultsProposedthatdevelopmentoccursasaseriesof‘stages’differinginhowtheworldisunderstoodSensorimotorStage(birth–2)InformationisgainedthroughthesensesandmotoractionsChildperceivesandmanipulatesbutdoesnotreasonSymbolsbecomeinternalizedthroughlanguagedevelopmentObjectpermanenceisacquiredObjectPermanenceTheunderstandingthatobjectsexistindependentofone’sactionsorperceptionsofthemBefore6monthsinfantsactasifobjectsremovedfromsightceasetoexist Canbesurprisedbydisappearance/reappearanceofaface(peek-a-boo)PreoperationalStage

(2–7years)EmergenceofsymbolicthoughtCentrationEgocentrismLackoftheconceptofconservationAnimismArtificialismConcreteOperationalStage

(7–12years)IncreasinglylogicalthoughtClassificationandcategorizationLessegocentricAbilitytounderstandthatphysicalquantitiesareequalevenifappearancechanges(conservation)InabilitytoreasonabstractlyorhypotheticallyFormalOperationalStage

(age12–adulthood)Hypothetico-deductivereasoningEmergesgraduallyContinuestodevelopintoadulthoodCritiqueofPiaget’sTheoryUnderestimateschildren’sabilitiesOverestimatesagedifferencesinthinkingVaguenessabouttheprocessofchangeUnderestimatestheroleofthesocialenvironmentLackofevidenceforqualitativelydifferentstagesInformation-ProcessingPerspectiveFocusesonthemindasasystem,analogoustoacomputer,foranalyzinginformationfromtheenvironmentDevelopmentalimprovementsreflect

increasedcapacityofworkingmemoryfasterspeedofprocessingnewalgorithms(methods)morestoredknowledgeVygotsky’s

SocioculturalPerspectiveEmphasizedthechild’sinteractionwiththesocialworld(otherpeople)asacauseofdevelopmentVygotskybelievedlanguagetobethefoundationforsocialinteractionandthoughtPiagetbelievedlanguagewasabyproductofthoughtVygotsky’s

SocioculturalPerspectiveVygotsky—childrenlearnfrominteractionswithotherpeoplePiaget—focusedonchildren’sinteractionwiththephysicalworldAdolescenceTransitionstagebetweenlatechildhoodandearlyadulthoodSexualmaturityisattainedatthistimePuberty--attainmentofsexualmaturityandabilitytoreproduceHealth,nutrition,geneticsplayaroleinonsetandprogressionofpubertySocialRelationshipsParent-childrelationshipisusuallypositiveMayhavesomeperiodsoffrictionPeersbecomeincreasinglyimportantPeerinfluencemaynotbeasbadasmostpeoplethink.Adolescentstendtohavefriendsofsimilarage,race,socialclass,andwithsamereligiousbeliefs.Erikson’sTheoryThereareinnatedrivestodevelopsocialrelationshipsandthatthesepromotesurvival(Darwinism)Dividedlifespanintoeightpsychosocialstages,eachassociatedwithadifferentdriveandaproblemorcrisistoresolveOutcomeofeachstagevariesalongacontinuumfrompositivetonegativeIdentityDevelopmentIdentityvs.roleconfusionisthepsychosocialstageduringadolescenceDevelopingasenseofwhooneisandwhereoneisgoinginlifeSuccessfulresolutionleadstopositiveidentityUnsuccessfulresolutionleadstoidentityconfusionoranegativeidentityStage1(birth–1)

Trustvs.MistrustInfantsmustrelyonothersforcareConsistentanddependablecaregivingandmeetinginfantneedsleadstoasenseoftrustInfantswhoarenotwellcaredforwilldevelopmistrustStage2(1–3years)

Autonomyvs.ShameandDoubtChildrenarediscoveringtheirownindependenceThosegiventheopportunitytoexperienceindependencewillgainasenseofautonomyChildrenthatareoverlyrestrainedorpunishedharshlywilldevelopshameanddoubtStage3(3–5years)

Initiativevs.GuiltChildrenareexposedtothewidersocialworldandgivengreaterresponsibilitySenseofaccomplishmentleadstoinitiative,whereasfeelingsofguiltcanemergeifthechildismadetofeeltooanxiousorirresponsibleStage4(5–12years)

Industryvs.InferiorityStageoflifesurroundingmasteryofknowledgeandintellectualskillsSenseofcompetenceandachievementleadstoindustryFeelingincompetentandunproductiveleadstoinferiorityStage5(adolescence)

Identityvs.ConfusionDevelopingasenseofwhooneisandwhereoneisgoinginlifeSuccessfulresolutionleadstopositiveidentityUnsuccessfulresolutionleadstoidentityconfusionoranegativeidentityStage6(youngadulthood)

Intimacyvs.IsolationTimeforsharingoneselfwithanotherpersonCapacitytoholdcommitmentswithothersleadstointimacyFailuretoestablishcommitmentsleadstofeelingsofisolationStage7(middleadulthood)

Generativityvs.StagnationCaringforothersinfamily,friends,andworkleadstosenseofcontributiontolatergenerationsStagnationcomesfromasenseofboredomandmeaninglessnessStage8(lateadulthoodtodeath)

Integrityvs.Despair

Successfulresolutionsofallpreviouscrisesleadstointegrityandtheability

toseebroadtruthsandadvisethoseinearlierstagesDespairarisesfromfeelingsofhelplessnessandthebittersensethat

lifehasbeenincompleteKohlberg’sTheoryof

MoralDevelopmentAssessedmoralreasoningbyposinghypotheticalmoraldilemmasandexaminingthereasoningbehindpeople’sanswersProposedsixstages,eachtakingintoaccountabroaderportionofthesocialworldLevelsofMoralReasoningPreconventional—moralreasoningisbasedonexternalrewardsandpunishmentsConventional—lawsandrulesareupheldsimplybecausetheyarelawsandrulesPostconventional—reasoningbasedonpersonalmoralstandardsStage1:ObedienceandPunishmentOrientationAfocusondirectconsequencesNegativeactionswillresultinpunishmentsPositiveactionswillresultinrewardsStage2:MutualBenefitReflectstheunderstandingthatdifferentpeoplehavedifferentself-interests,whichsometimescomeinconflictGettingwhatonewantsoftenrequiresgivingsomethingupinreturnStage3:Interpersonal

ExpectationsAnattempttoliveuptotheexpectationsofimportantothersPositiveactionswillimproverelations