语言学考试总结

语言学考试总结(1).语言学考试总结(1)./语言学考试总结(1).Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thedesignfeatureoflanguage:arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement.注意arbitrariness,duality这两个。Arbitrarinessmeanstheformsoflinguisticsignsbearsnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.还有三个特色，看一下。Mainbranchesoflinguistics:Phonetics(语音学)，Phonology(音系学)，Morphology(形态学)，Syntax（句法学），Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.SyntaxisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Macrolinguistics(宏观语言学)Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）注意定义(investigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample)，Sociolinguistics（社会语言学），Anthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学)，Computationallinguistics(计算机语言学).Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics:(理解)Descriptivevs.Prescriptive(描绘式/规定式):thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Synchronicvs.Diachronic:(共时/历时):synchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation;diachroniclinguisticsisstudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Languevs.Parole（language/speaking语言/语言）:thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguistic.Competencevs.Performance(语言能力/语言运用):alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticcompetence,andperformancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.Phonetics（语音学）studieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.ThethreebranchesofPhonetics：ArticulatoryPhonetics(发音语音学)发展最成熟，AcousticPhonetics（声学语音学），AuditoryPhonetics（听觉语音学）Phonology（音系学）studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofthesyllables.IPAInternationalPhoneticAlphabetConsonants(辅音)：theMannerofArticulation(发音方式)、thePlaceofArticulation（发音部位）（这部分理解，各考一个）看课本35页到37页辅音和元音的发音规则表发音方式：（八种）Stop/Plosive(塞音/爆破音)：Completeclosureofthearticulators(发音器官)isinvolvedsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth./p,b,t,d,k,g/Nasal(鼻音nasalstop)：Theairisstoppedintheoralcavity(口腔)butthesoftpalate（软腭）isdownsothatitcangooutthroughthenasalcavity（鼻腔）/m,n,n/.Fricative（摩擦音）：Africativeisproducedwhenthereiscloseapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheairstreamispartiallyobstructed(阻截)andturbulent(不坚固的)airflowisproduced./f,v,Approximant(近音)：Thisisanarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltract（声道）beingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced./w,r,j/Lateral(边音)：Theobstructionoftheairstreamisatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth./l/Trill(颤音)Atrillisproducedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbytheairstream./r/Tap/Flap(触音/闪音):Whenthetonguemakesasingletapagainstthealveolarridge（齿龈）toproduceonlyonevibration,thesoundiscalledatap.Theflapispronouncedwiththetipofthetonguecurledup（卷着）andbackinaretroflex(卷舌)gestureandthenstrikingtheroofofthemouthinthepost-alveolar（后齿龈）regionasitreturnstoitspositionbehindthelowerfrontteeth.Affricate(塞擦音/破擦音):Affricatesinvolvemorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricative(摩擦音)atthesameplaceofarticulation.发音部位：（十一个）Bilabial（双唇音）：Madewiththetwolips./p,b,m//w/(we)Labiodental(唇齿音)：Madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth./f,v/Dental(齿音):Madebythetonguetiporblade（舌叶）andtheupperfrontteeth.Alveolar(齿龈音):Madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.Post-alveolar(后齿龈音):Madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Retroflex（卷舌音）：Madewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback（卷曲）sothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate(硬腭).Palatal（硬腭音）：Madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.Velar（软腭音）：Madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.Uvular（小舌音）：Madewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofsofttissue（软组织）andmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum(软腭).Pharyngeal(咽音)：Madewiththerootofthetongueandthewallofthepharynx(咽).Glottal(声门音/喉音)：Madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfolds(声带)pushedtowardseachother.Vowelscardinalvowels(基本元音),pure/monophthongvowels（单元音）,vowelglides（滑元音）,diphthongs（双元音/ai/）,triphthongs（三合元音/aie/）Broadtranscription(宽式标音)：Usesimpleandcommonsymbolsfortheunusualsymbols.Narrowtranscription(严式标音）:Usemorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetail.Phoneme（音素）Minimal

pairs(最小对峙体

)针对元音音素

/i://i/(beat/bit)/ei//ai/(tale/tile)Allophones(音位变体)：(Thevariationinthepronunciationofphonemeindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.)aphoneticvariantofphoneme.e.g./p/peak,speak.Assimilation(同化):aprocessthatonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.nasalization（鼻音化/kait//kain/

），dentalization（齿音化

/tent/--/ten），

velarization（软腭化），regressiveassimilation(逆同化

)

，

progressiveassimilation（顺同化）Dissimilation（异化）Morpheme(词素)isthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordramaticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphology（形态学/词形学）studiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Typesofmorphemes:Freemorpheme(自由词素dog,close，nation),boundmorpheme（粘着词素dis-,-ed）,root(词根internationalnation;friendshipsfriend),affix(词缀),stem（词干friendshipsfriendship）,inflectionalaffix(曲折词素friendshipss)，derivationalaffix（派生词素reciterecitationrecital）Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem),soaffixisnaturallybound.Prefix(前缀):para-,mini-,un-举比方unconscious，minibus等Suffix（后缀）:-ise,-tion,-ismInfix（中缀）:abso-blooming-lutelyLexicalChangeProper:Invention(发明法),Blending（混成发）,Abbreviation（缩写法advertisementad）,Acronym（缩略法WTOWorldTradeOrganization）,Back-formation（逆构词法）,Analogicalcreation（类推构词）,Borrowing（借词法）。ImmediateConstituentAnalysis（直接成分分析法）treediagram(树形图)Coordination(并列and,but,or)Subordination（从属）Subject(主语)Predicate（述谓）ThemeAhemeEmbeddedsentence(嵌入句)compoundsentence(并列复合句)Particle(小品词up,down,in)TheReferentialTheory(指称论)主张这一理论的代表人物是Plato（柏拉图）Synonymy（同义词）isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.Antonymy（反义词）isthenameforoppositenessrelation.Hyponymy(上下义关系)isarelationbetweentwowords,inwhichthemeaningofoneword(thesuperordinate上位词)includesthemeaningofanotherword(thehyponym下位词).CognitiveLinguisticsisanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguagethatemergedinthe1970sasarecreationagainstthedominantgenerativeparadigmwhichpursuesanautonomousviewoflanguage.Itreferstothebranchoflinguisticsthatinterpretslanguageintermsoftheconcepts,sometimesuniversal,sometimesspecifictoaparticulartongue,whichunderlieits