中英社会称谓的区别 以及跨文化交流中的务实失败

PAGE毕业论文（设计）PAGEPAGE1TheDifferenceBetweenChineseandEnglishSocialAppellationandPragmaticFailuresinCross-culturalCommunication1.Introduction 12.ClassificationofChineseappellation 22.1Communicationappellation 22.2Relationshipappellation 32.3Respectfulappellation 32.4Occupationalandtitleappellation 42.4.1Occupationalappellation 42.4.2Titleappellation 52.5Affectionateappellation 53.ClassificationofEnglishappellation 63.1Communicationappellation 73.2Relationshipappellation 73.3Respectfulappellation 83.4Titleappellation 83.5Affectionateappellation 84.ThedifferencebetweenChineseandEnglishsocialappellationsystems 95.Pragmaticfailuresincross-culturalcommunication 126.Causesofpragmaticfailuresandwaystoavoidthem 156.1Causesofpragmaticfailures 156.2Waystoavoidpragmaticfailures 167.Conclusion 17References 181.IntroductionWhenitcomestothecourseofcommunication,appellationisusuallythefirstinformationconveyingtotheaudience.Anditplaysaveryimportantroleinsociallinguisticissues.Differentformsofaddressreflectdifferentstatus,roles,closenessandsocialpositionsbetweenthespeakerandthelistener.Moreover,appellationisusedtomaintainandstrengthenallkindsofsocialrelationships.Asaresult,properappellationstimulatescommunication,whileimproperappellationwouldusuallycauseunhappinessbetweenthespeakerandthelistener.Therefore,itwillsetablockincommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Socialappellationisthelanguageoneusestoaddressotherpeopleexcepthisrelativesintheirpresence,whichreflectstherelationshipbetweenthetwosides.Itistheculturalsymbolofsocialstructureandsocialrelatives.Duetothedifferentculturalbackgrounds,Chinese-Englishsocialappellationsarealsodifferent.Weshouldrealizeandbefamiliarwiththeappellationpragmaticfunctionsinsocialoccasions,particularlythedifferentmeaningsofwordsandtheirconnotationsindifferentnations.ItisofgreathelpforustomasterEnglish,anditisalsohelpfulforthemutualcommunicationbetweenChineseandwesterners.2.ClassificationofChineseappellationInthecourseofcommunication,Chineseattachgreatinfluencetoappellation.Forexample,inpatriarchalsociety,theyemphasizetheconceptoffamilyandevenextendtherelativeaddressingtonon-relativeswithanaimtoshowtheircloseness.Atthesametime,theylayspecialstressonseniorityintheclan.Sinceeveryappellationhasaspecificmeaning,oneshouldchooseapropersocialappellationaccordingtotherolebetweentheaddresserandtheaddressee.Therefore,Chineseappellationsystemisverycomplicated.Therearemainlyfivecategoriesaccordingtoitsexactusageindifferentcontexts(TianHuigang，1998：292).2.1CommunicationappellationInfact,itisakindofpoliteappellationandmostlyusedinsocialcommunicationorappearsinlettersinaformalway.Thecommonwordsare“师傅、同志、先生、女士、小姐”,etc.Thesewordsareusedtoachieveasimpleaddressingpurpose,i.e.toletthelisteneroraddresseeknowsthewillingnessofcommunicationortogetothers’attentionbeforetheformalconversation.Meanwhile,thesewordscannotonlybeuseddirectlytoaddressotherpeople,butalsobeaddedafterone’ssurnameorgivennametoformacompoundappellation,suchas“张同志、刘师傅、云路先生、漫茹小姐”.Amongtheaboveappellation,“张同志、刘师傅”soundformal,while“云路先生、漫茹小姐”soundinformal.Thelatterareusuallyusedtoaddresssomeonethespeakerknowswelltoshowhisaffection.Inaddition,fullnameaddresscanbeusedbetweenfamiliarfriends,suchas“李小华、王思平、许丽霞”andsoon.However,iftheaddresseeisanelderorasenior,fullnameaddressshouldbeavoided.2.2RelationshipappellationItisusedtoshowthesocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.Andthiskindofrelationshipisnotveryspecific.Examplesare“老师、同学、老板、老乡、医生”,etc.Thosewordscanbeuseddirectlytoaddresspeople,usuallyintwocircumstances.Oneisthattheappellationshowsrealrelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthelistener.Forinstance,AisanemployerandBisanemployee.Inthisway,AshouldcallB“老板”.Theothercircumstanceisthattheappellationdoesnotreallyshowtherelationshipbetweentheaddresserandtheaddressee.Forexample,Cisauniversitystudent,andhemeetsDwhoisateacher.AlthoughDmaynotteachC,CmightcallD“老师”.2.3RespectfulappellationItisarespectfulsocialappellationfortheaddressees,anditisdividedintothefollowingforms.Lao+surname:LaoWang(老王),LaoZhang(老张),LaoLi(老李),etc.Lao+surname+Tongzhi/Shifu:LaoLiTongzhi(老李同志),LaoLiuShifu(老刘师傅),etc.Surname+Lao:XuLao(徐老),ZhaoLao(赵老),TianLao(田老),etc.Fullname+Lao:ChenWangdaoLao(陈望道老),WangJunyiLao(王君仪老),ZhuangXiquanLao(庄希泉老),etc.Onewordinaname+Lao:ShengLao(圣老),WangLao(望老),JieLao(颉老),etc.Givenname+Laoren:BingxinLaoren(冰心老人),JunyiLaoren(君仪老人),etc.Surname+Gong:ZhouGong(周公),MaoGong(茅公),XiaGong(夏公),etc.Specialrespectfulappellation:Xiansheng(先生),Furen(夫人),Gexia(阁下).Thesewordsareoftenusedtoaddresselderlypersonsofhighprestigeorseniorexperts.Take“Xiansheng”asanexample.Itcanbeaddressedtomenandwomen,suchas“QianZhongshuXiansheng(钱钟书先生)”，“YangJiangXiansheng(杨绛先生)”,“WangYizhuXiansheng(王颖珠先生)”.2.4OccupationalandtitleappellationItisawayofaddressingbyusingtheaddressee’spostandrank,whichisverypopularinChina.Thereareoccupationalappellationandtitleappellation(TianHuigang,1998：294).2.4.1OccupationalappellationGenerallyspeaking,thesejobsareadoredbypeople,suchasteachers,doctors,engineers,managers,reporters,etc.Forinstance,Ms.Dengisateacher;shemaybeaddressedby“DengLaoshi”.Nowadays,theabovejobsbelongtowhite-collarwork.However,otherjobsrequiringphysicaleffort,i.e.blue-collarwork,suchasdrivers,cooks,barbersandlathemen,arenotusedforoccupationappellation.2.4.2TitleappellationThiskindofappellationhassomethingtodowiththetitles.Itisdividedintofourpartsasthefollowing.Officialtitle:chairman,president,premier,mayor,minister,headmaster,dean,etc.suchasChairmanHu.Postandrank:professor,vice-professor,researcher,vice-researcher,advancedengineer,etc.Theyareusuallyusedtoaddressintellectuals,andtheword“vice”isoftenomitted.Forexample,Mr.Zhangisavice-professor,butheiscalled“ProfessorZhang”.Academicrank:doctorAmongalltheacademicranks,only“doctor”isusedforaddressing.Forexample,DoctorLi.Neither“master”nor“bachelor”isusedforaddressing.Militaryrank:marshal,general,commander,captain,sergeant,etc.Forexample,“马将军”.2.5AffectionateappellationTheyareusedforaddressingsomeonetheaddresserisquitefamiliarwith,showinghiscloseness.InChinese,therearevariouskindsofaffectionateappellations.Andtheyarediscussedinthefollowingforms.Addressingone’sgivennamedirectly:Peilan(培兰),Zhigang(志刚),Yajing(雅静),etc.Addressingone’sfullnamedirectly:LiPeilan(李培兰),WangZhigang(王志刚),LiuYajing(刘雅静),etc.Xiao+surname:XiaoLi(小李),XiaoWang(小王),XiaoZhang(小张),etc.Thisappellationisusedmostfrequently.Surname/name+er:Wanger(王儿),Zhonger(钟儿),Yaner(燕儿),etc.ThiskindofappellationisonlyusedinspokenlanguageinNorthChina.Surname+zi:Lizi(李子),Yangzi(杨子),Taozi(桃子),Meizi(梅子),etc.Thisappellationoftenbringspeoplefruitinmind.Da+surname:DaLi(大李),DaSong(大宋),DaWang(大王),etc.Theyareusuallyaddressedtosomeonewhoisrelativelyoldorlooksbigintheirphysicalshape.Nickname:Pangzi(胖子),Digua(地瓜),Dager(大个儿),LaoGudong(老古董),etc.Nicknameaddressingisakindoftemporaryappellation.Forexample,“DiGua”maybeusedoncampus,butitwillnolongerbeusedassoonasheleavesthecampus.Andthisformofaddressisusedbetweenclosefriends.3.ClassificationofEnglishappellationWiththeinfluenceofChristianityandwesternphilosophy,westernersarestronglyinfavorofindividualism.Theyprefertoliveseparatelyandseldomemphasizegeneticrelationship.“CloselyrelatedtoindividualismistheAmericanvalueofequality,whichisemphasizedineverythingfromgovernment(‘Allmenarecreatedequal’)tosocialrelationship(‘Justcallmebymyfirstname’).Thevalueofequalityisfullyembodiedintheirsocialappellation’’(TangDegen，2000：153).Asaresult,EnglishsocialappellationsystemislesscomplicatedthanChinesesocialappellationsystem.Ingeneral,Englishsocialappellationsystemisdividedintothefollowingparts.3.1CommunicationappellationThewordsincommonuseare“Sir,Madam,Mr.,MissandMs.”Accordingtotheirusages,theywillbediscussedasfollows.Usedseparately:Sir,MadamandMissTheyarespeciallyusedforaddressingstrangers.Forexample,“DearSir/Madam”isoftenusedatthebeginningofaletter.Mr.(Mrs.,Miss,Ms.)+surname:Mr.Smith,Mrs.William,MissGreen,etc.TheyareusedmostfrequentlyinEnglishsocialintercourse.Generallyspeaking,“Mr.”isusedformale,“Mrs.”isusedformarriedfemaleand“Miss”isusedforunmarriedordivorcedfemale.Thereisnoagelimitfor“Miss”,evenan80-year-oldunmarriedfemalecanbeaddressed“Miss+surname”.However,itismainlyusedfortheunmarriedgirls.Mr.+militaryrank/officialrank:Mr.President,Mr.Mayor,Mr.Manager,etc.However,theyarenotusedwithpostandacademicrank.Forinstance,peopledonotaddressothers“Mr.Professor”or“Mr.Doctor”.3.2RelationshipappellationInEnglish,thereareafewwords,suchas“Doctor,Father,Boss”,whichareusedtoindicatetherelationshipbetweentheaddresserandtheaddressee.Forinstance,Christiansaddressthepriest“Father”andtheemployeescalltheemployer“boss”.Actually,“boss”ismostlyusedifthetwospeakershavecloserelationship.3.3RespectfulappellationThecommonwordsare“Sir,Lady,andLord”,etc.“Sir”isusedtoshowrespectfortheolderorpeoplewhoareinhighsocialpositions.“Lady”isusedforwomenwithrespect.Thereisasaying“Ladyfirst”.Here,peopleuse“lady”insteadof“woman”because“lady”impliesmorerespect.Generallyspeaking,“lord”isusedforaddressingnobleswiththeform“Lord+surname”,suchas“LordSmith”,“LordCarrington”,etc.Ontheotherhand,“MyLord”and“YourLordship”areoftenusedatthepresenceoftheaddressee.3.4TitleappellationUsedseparately:Doctor,Father,Professor,Boss,etc.Theyareusedtoaddresssomeoneinhispresence.However,theyarenotusedinofficialsituations.Mr.+officialrank:Mr.President,Mr.Senator,Mr.Ambassador,etc.Itisaverycommonusage,whichisusedtoshowrespecttosomeonewithahighersocialstatus.Mr.+militaryrank:Mr.Mayor,Mr.Colonel,Mr.Captain,etc.Postandrank+surname:ProfessorSmith,Prof.Thompson,etc.Academicrank+surname:Dr.Stevenson,Dr.Green,etc.3.5AffectionateappellationInEnglish,therearethreemainforms.Addressingfirstnamedirectly:Alexander,David,John,Mary,etc.Thisisverynative,andthecommunicativepurposeisperfectlyachievedfinally.Usingaffectionateformsofappellation:Alick,Davy,Jack,Mariana,etc.Thesearetheaffectionateformsoftheabovefirstnames,whicharepopularamongEnglish-speakingcountries.Addressingnickname:Strictlyspeaking,nicknameisusuallyregardedasridicule,banterandsatirize,suchasbullet,fatty,skinny,lippy,etc.Nevertheless,nicknameisusedtoshowcloserelationshipbecauseitisoftenusedforclosefriends.4.ThedifferencebetweenChineseandEnglishsocialappellationsystemsTherearesomesimilaritiesbetweenChineseandEnglishsocialappellationsystems.Firstofall,“Mr.,Mrs.andMiss”areusedmostfrequentlyinwesterncountries.Atthesametime,theyaffectChineseappellationgreatly.Furthermore,theygraduallytaketheplaceof“Tongzhi”and“Shifu”andbecomethemostimportantcommunicationappellation(TianHuigang，1998：305).Inaddition,bothChineseandEnglishuse“postandrank”asappellation,andthereisasurprisingsimilaritybetweenthem.Forexample,inEnglish,theyonlyaddress“ProfessorJohnson”butnot“LecturerJohnson”or“AssistantJohnson”.Andtheyaddress“Dr.Smith”butnot“MasterSmith”or“BachelorSmith”.InChinese,peopleonlyaddress“Guojiaoshou(郭教授)”butnot“Guojiangshi(郭讲师)”or“Guozhujiao(郭助教)”.Andtheyonlysay“Linboshi(林博士)”butnot“Linshuoshi(林硕士)or“Linxueshi(林学士)”.Moreover,inEnglish,affectionateappellationsareusedforaddressing,suchas“Ronald-Ronnie”,“John-Johnny”,“Cecilia-Celia”,etc.InChinese,repeatingwordsareusedasaffectionateappellations,suchas“LiMin(李民)-Minmin(民民)”,“ZhangTing(张婷)-Tingting(婷婷)”,“WangLin(王琳)-Linlin(琳琳)”,etc.TheyaresimilaritiesbetweenChineseandEnglishsocialappellationsystems.However,ChinesesocialappellationsystemisvariedfromEnglishsocialappellationsystem.Itisknownthat“Sir,Mr.,Mrs.,Miss”isusedmostwidelyinEnglish.Whenonemeetsamiddle-agedEnglishwoman,hecanjustcallher“MissX”or“MsX”,whichisalwayssuitable(Net.1).Yetattentionshouldbepaidtoitsusages.First,“Mr./Mrs.”ismostlyusedtoaddresspeoplewithunknowntitlesorwithouttitles.However,itcannotbeusedtogetherwithreligioustitles(Qiwei，2007).Thisformofaddressisformalandtherelationshipbetweenthespeakersisnotclose.Ononehand,“Mr.”isusedtogetherwithofficialtitles,forexample,“Mr.President”.Meanwhile,“Mr.”isusedwithplaces,sportsandposts,suchas“Mr.America”and“Mr.Baseball”.Ontheotherhand,“Mrs.”isusedforthemarriedfemale.Itsusageisthesameas“Mr.”,forexample,“Mrs.AmericaThatisquitedifferentfromChinese.Inthepast,peopleused“Tongzhi”foraddressingfrequently,andtodaypeopletendtouse“Shifu”.Meanwhile,moreandmorepeopleuse“Mr.,Mrs.,andMiss”,yetthereisstilltoofarawaytoreachthesameextentasusedinEnglish.Nowadays,“Mr.”and“Mrs.”aremainlyusedtoaddressforeignguestsinsomeformalsituation.Andtheyarealsousedforaddressingmanagersinthecompaniesandintelligentsiaswithgreatknowledge.Moreover,inChinese,“Xiansheng(先生)”mayrefertoafortune-tellerorsomeone’shusband.What’smore,theformofaddressisdifferentinEnglish.“Mr.”isputbeforesurnames,suchas“Mr.Terry”,while“Xiansheng”isputaftersurnames,suchas“LiangXiansheng”.InChinese,“postandrank”isusedtoaddresspeopledirectly,suchasChangzhang(厂长),Chuzhang(处长),Kezhang(科长),Zhuren(主任),etc.ButitneverappearslikethatinEnglish.Meanwhile,surnamesareoftenputbeforeofficialtitlestoaddresspeoplewithhighersocialranks,suchasWangChangzhang(王厂长),ZhangZhuren(张主任),ZhangShuji(张书记),etc.However,thewesternerstendtouse“Mr.,Mrs.,Miss+surname”toshowthiskindofrelationship.Whatshouldbenoticedisthat,inChinese,theformof“Lao+surname/post”and“Surname+Lao”areusedassocialappellation,whileitneverhappensinEnglish.Supposeonemechanicallytranslates“LaoLi”into“OldLi”or“WangLao”into“WangOld”,itwouldbeagreatjoke,becausetheusageofaddingtheprefix“Lao”andthesuffix“Lao”inChineseisverycomplicated.Theprefix“Lao”isunfixedinitsmeaningwhilethesuffix“Lao”isusuallyfixed.Forexample,“LaoXiansheng(老先生)”isdifferentfrom“LaoDongxi(老东西)”.Even“LaoDaye(老大爷)”and“LaoXiansheng(老先生)”hasalittledifference.What’smore,theappellationformof“ChenLao(陈老)”impliesmuchrespect.Inaddressingform,therearemanyself-calledformsfortheprefix“Lao”,suchas“WoLaoZhang(我老张)”,buttherearenosuchformsforsuffix“Lao”.Althoughonecanaddressothers’namesdirectlybothinChineseandEnglish,thereisabigdiscrepancybetweentheirspecificusages.InChinese,thereareafewsituationsthatoneaddressesotherpeopledirectlybytheirnamesandtheyaremainlyusedbetweenrelativesandclosefriends.However,itisusedwidelyinEnglish,almostforeverymemberinthesociety,includingtheelder,peopleofhighrankandevennoddingacquaintance.However,inChinese,onemustbeverycarefulwhenheaddressestheelderorpeopleofhighposition.Anotherimportantdifferenceisthatitisnotsuitableinthewesterncustomsifoneaddressesthenon-relativeswithrelationshipappellation.Forexample,ChildreninUKtendtouse“Mr.(Mrs.)+surname”orfirstnamestoaddresstheirparents’friends,andtheyseldomusetherelationshipappellation.Furthermore,iftherelationshipbetweenthetwofamiliesisveryclose,childrencancallthemembersfromtheotherfamilies“Uncle(aunt)+nickname”.Nevertheless,adultsareforbiddentoadoptthatway(TianHuigang,1998:307).Instead,theyuse“Mr.(Mrs.)+surname”oraddressbysurnameornicknamedirectly.Thissoundsmorenative,andthecommunicativepurposeisperfectlyachievedintheend(Net.1).ThisdiffersgreatlyfromEnglishtoChinese.InChinese,relationshipappellationiscommonlyusedforfriends’parentsandevenstrangers,sinceitisconsideredtoberespectful.Fromtheabovecomparison,itisclearthattherearemanydifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishsocialappellationsystems.Asaresult,itisunavoidabletocomeacrosssomepragmaticfailuresincross-culturalcommunication.5.Pragmaticfailuresincross-culturalcommunication“Interculturalcommunicationisabouthowpeoplefromdifferentculturescommunicate.Morespecifically,interculturalcommunicationisconcernedwithunmediatedcommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds”(TangDegen，2000:16).AsBritishProf.GillianBrown(2000:35)said,“Communicationisariskybusiness”,whichmeanstheprocessofcommunicationistheprocessofcompleteinteraction.Duetodifferentculturalbackgrounds,therearesomeunavoidablepragmaticfailuresinsocialcommunication.Andthepragmaticfailuresareusuallycausedbydifferentcultures,whichstronglyinfluencesocialintercourse,likeconveyingwronginformation,misleadinginformationandsettinginformationblocks.Thusitisdifficulttocompletecommunication.Allofthesearenamedpragmaticfailures.Becauseofdifferentsocialbackgrounds,socialsystems,waysofthinking,normsofbehaviorsandcustoms,peoplehavemanydifficultiesandobstaclesinunderstandingeachotherincommunication.ThefollowingisanexampleofaChineseoverseasstudent.IthappenedatthefirsttimehewenttohisAmericanfriendJohn’shome.WhenhemetJohn’smother,hecalledher“Aunt”.Asaresult,John’smothergotconfused.Nevertheless,shemadesomeresponse.Thestudentthoughthewaspoliteandreachedhiscommunicationpurpose.Asamatteroffact,pragmaticfailureshappenedbecausethestudentencodedtheappellationaccordingtoChineseculture.AnotherexampleisKate’sexperiencetovisitaChinesefarmer’shome.Whenthefarmer’sdaughtercalledKate“Aunt”,heaskedhisdaughtertoaddressKate“Grandma”insteadbecauseshelookedold.Atthismoment,Katewasembarrassedandsaid“JustcallmeKate”.Thisisbecausewesternersseldomaddressotherpeople“uncle”or“aunt”.Tosumup,therearetwotypesofpragmaticfailures.Oneisthatlanguagecausespragmaticfailuresitself,andthishastwokindsofpresentations:First,whatpeoplesayisnotsuitablewithnative’slanguagehabits,thatistosay,peoplemisusenative’sexpressions.Second,thespeakersusethemeaningandstructureoftheirmothertonguetotaketheplaceofforeignlanguages(WangFuxiang,WuHanying,1994:553).Forinstance,fromthestructureandpositionofappellationinEnglish,“Mr.”isalwaysplacedbeforesurnamesanditfollowstheformof“Mr./Mrs.+surname”.ButinChinese,surnameisalwaysplacedbefore“Xiansheng”,e.g.“WangXiansheng”.Theothertypeissocialcommunicationpragmaticfailures.Itmeansthatthespeakersmisuseexpressionsincommunicationbecausetheyknowlittleaboutthedifferencesbetweenthetwocultures.Thisoftenrelatestothesocialstatus.Forexample,inChinese,peopleusuallyusetheformof“surname+postandrank”foraddress,suchas“ZhangShuji”,“LinZhuren”,“WangJuzhang”andsoon.IfaworkeraddressesanAmericanmanagerby“Georgemanager”,Georgewouldgetconfusedbecausethereisnosuchexpressioninwesterncountries.Thewesternersalwaystaketheformof“Mr./Mrs./Miss+surname”toaddressothers.What’smore,Chinesesocialappellationsystemissophisticated.Andtheappellationsusedinthehospitaloratschoolarenotdifficultforforeignstudents,butthesestudentsoftenmakeamesswhentheyaddressthemid-agedwomeninpublic(LiYanchun,2000).Inthepast,bothmenandwomencouldbeaddressedby“Tongzhi”andlater“Shifu”.SinceChinaadoptedtheopening-uppolicyandenteredWTO,peoplegetusedtotheappellationsof“Xiansheng”and“Xiaojie”.However,theappellationof“Xiaojie”sometimesbringsinconvenienceandembarrassmenttothefemale.IthappenedthatanEnglishstudentwentintoastoretobuyacup.Heconsultedamiddle-agedsaleswomaninthisway:“LaoXiaojie,howmuchisit?”Thesaleswoman’sfaceturnedredassoonassheheardthat.Actually,inChina,“Xiansheng”canbeaddressedtothemaleatwhateverage,marriedorunmarried.Furthermore,wecanalsouse“LaoXianshen”toaddressanoldmaninordertoshowourrespect.However,tothefemale,thereisastrictrulefortheuseof“Xiaojie”.Generallyspeaking,“LaoXiaojie”canbeusedanditisnotmatchedwith“LaoXiansheng”.“Xiaojie”ismainlyusedfortheunmarried.Inaddition,thegirlsworkingas“SanpeiXiaojie(三陪小姐)”,whodoesprostituteworkinordertogetmoney,areoftenaddressedas“Xiaojie”Theabovepragmaticfailuresoftenhappenbecausetheaddressersdonotunderstandtheculturalbackgroundswellonbothsides.Therefore,inordertomakecommunicationgosmoothly,theaddressersshouldchoosesuitableappellationsaccordingtoaseriesoffactors,suchastheaddressees’ages,socialpositionsandsoon.6.Causesofpragmaticfailuresandwaystoavoidthem6.1CausesofpragmaticfailuresBroadlyspeaking,pragmaticfailureshappenbecausethespeakershavenoknowledgeofthedifferenthistoricalandculturalbackgroundsbetweenChinaandwesterncountries.Anthropologistsbelievethattraditionaloutlookonvalueisthecenterofculture,i.e.Chinesepeopleareinfavorofcollectivismwhilewesternpeoplepreferindividualism.Therefore,pragmaticfailuresseemunavoidablewhenpeoplecomeacrosscross-culturalcommunication(JiangLei,1997:11).OneofthekeypointsinunderstandingChinesecultureandwesterncultureisthedistinctionofcollectivismandindividualism.InChina,forthousandsofyears,mostfamiliesareextendedfamilies.Theyliveclosetoeachother.Whileinwesterncountries,mostofthefamiliesarecorefamilies.Thevaluesofindividualismandequalityhavedeepinfluenceintheirminds.Asaresult,theyseldomaddressnon-relativeswithrelationshipappellation.Ontheotherhand,undertheinfluenceofConfucianism,thesenseofhierarchyhasgreatimpactonChinesebehaviors(HuHongli，2003).Thisisembodiedinpostandrankappellation.Meanwhile,peopleareinclinedtojudgeone’sstatusbyhispost,suchas“HuZhuxi(胡主席),“LiShizhang(李市长)”,etc.However，Americaisanimmigrantcountryandherimmigrantscomefromallovertheworld.Americanpeopletakefreedomandequalityaseverythingintheirlives.Thisalsoreflectsintheirtitleappellation.Itissaidthat57%ofAmericansaddresstheirbossesbytheirnames,while78.3%ofChineseaddresstheirsuperiorbypost(HuHongli，2003).FortheAmericans,titleappellationsareonlyusedatworkbecausethesenseofequalityhasdeeplyrootedintheirminds.6.2WaystoavoidpragmaticfailuresItisclearthatmessageswillchangewhentheyarepassedfromoneculturetoanother.Whatthespeakerexpressesissomewhatdifferentfromwhatthelistenerunderstands.Asuccessfulcommunicationdependsonthespeakerandthelistener,anditisnamed“bothsidescommunication”.Thatistosay,bothsidesshouldhaveasharedcultureandrulesinlanguageinteraction.Inordertomakecross-culturalcommunicationsuccessful,weshouldmakeeffortstoavoidpragmaticfailures.Firstofall,lackoftheunderstandingofdifferentculturalbackgroundsoftensetablockincross-culturalcommunication.AccordingtoLinellDavis(2001:251),“learningaboutcultureandlearningtodoculture”makegreatsensetoavoidpragmaticfailures.AndLinellDavis(2001:254)suggeststhatthereisnoneedforthespeakertousethetargetculturetotaketheplaceoftheirownculture.Whatthespeakershouldachie