超级强化讲义lv2翻译

Present-dayphilosophers❶Present-dayphilosophersusuallyenvisiontheirdisciplineasanendeavorthathasbeen,sinceantiquity,distinctfromandsuperiortoanyparticularinlectualdiscipline,suchastheologyorscience.❷Suchphilosophicalconcernsasthemind-bodyproblemor,moregenerally,thenatureofhumanknowledge,theybelieve,arebasichumanquestionswhosetentativephilosophicalsolutionshaveservedasthenecessaryfoundationsonwhichallotherinlectualspeculationhasrested.❶哲学家通把他们的学想象为自古来直区别并且优于如或科这种特定智科的一种努力。他们相信，如哲学对于问题的关注或者更一般，对于人类识性❶Thebasisforthisview,however,liesinaseriousmisinterpretationofthepast,aprojectionofmodernconcernsontopastevents.❷Theideaofanautonomousdisciplinecalled“philosophy,”distinctfromandsittinginjudgmentonsuchpursuitsastheologyandscienceturnsout,oncloseexamination,tobeofquiterecentorigin.❸When,intheseventeenthcentury,DescartesandHobbesrejectedmedievalphilosophy,theydidnotthinkofthemselves,asmodernphilosophersdo,asproposinganewandbetterphilosophy,butratherasfurthering“thewarfarebetweenscienceandtheology”.❹Theywerefighting,albeitdiscreetly,toopentheinlectualworldtothenewscienceandtoliberateinlectuallifefromecclesiasticalphilosophyandenvisionedtheirworkascontributingtothegrowth,notofphilosophy,butofresearchinmathematicsandphysics.❺Thislinkbetweenphilosophicalinterestsandscientificpracticepersisteduntilthenineteenthcentury,whendeclineinecclesiasticalpoweroverscholarshipandchangesinthenatureofscienceprovokedthefinalseparationofphilosophyfromboth.❶然而，这个观点的依据存在于对过去的严重误解之中，把现代的关注投射在过去的上。❷仔 于近代。❸当17世纪Descartes和Hobbes 是更新颖的、更完善的哲学，而是认为自己在和科学的。❹他们力争为新科学开辟智力世界，并且为了把智力生活从哲学中解放出来而奋斗，尽管这种奋斗是谨慎的，他们把自己的工作憧憬为对数学和物理学研究的促进，而不是对哲学本身的促进。❺哲学上的点与科学实践之间的联系持续到19世纪，那时候对于学术研究控制的削弱以及科学性质的改变将哲学从神❶Thedemarcationofphilosophyfromsciencewasfacilitatedbythedevelopmentintheearlynineteenthcenturyofanewnotion,thatphilosophy’scoreinterestshouldbeepistemology,thegeneralexnationofwhatitmeanstoknowsomething.❷ModernphilosophersnowtracethatnotionbackatleasttoDescartesandSpinoza,butitwasnotexplicitlyarticulateduntilthelateeighteenthcentury,byKant,anddidnot ebuiltintothestructureofacademicinstitutionsandthestandardself-descriptionsofphilosophyprofessorsuntilthelatenineteenthcentury.❸Withouttheideaofepistemology,thesurvivalofphilosophyinanageofmodernscienceishardtoimagine.❹Metaphysics,philosophy’straditionalcore—consideredasthemostgeneraldescriptionofhowtheheavensandtheearthareputtogether—hadbeenrenderedalmostcompleymeaninglessbythespectacularprogressofphysics.❺Kant,however,byfocusingphilosophyontheproblemofknowledge,managedtorecemetaphysicswithepistemology,andthustotransformthenotionofphilosophyas“queenofsciences”intothenewnotionofphilosophyasaseparate,foundationaldiscipline.❻Philosophybecame“primary”nolongerinthesenseof“highest”butinthesenseof“underlying”.❼AfterKant,philosopherswereabletoreinterpretseventeenth-andeighteenth-centurythinkersasattemptingtodiscover“Howisourknowledgepossible?”andtoprojectthisquestionbackevenontheancients.❶一个新观点的发展在19世纪初推动了哲学与科学的划分，这个新观点认为哲学应该是溯到了Descartes和Spinoza18世纪末期才被Kant清楚地阐述出来，并且直到19世纪末期它才融合到学术机构中以及哲学教授自我描述的标准的学科中。❸要是没有认识论这个概念，我们难以想象哲学学科在现代科学的时代中如何能生存下去。❹作为哲学的传统，形而上学❺然而，Kant把哲学聚焦到认识问题上，想方设法用认识论来取代形而上学，因此把哲学看作是“科学高在上”，而是一个“基础”❼哲学家们以Kant1718世纪思想家重新解释为Althoughahistorical❶AlthoughahistoricallackofaccesstoformalSpanish-languageeducationinitiallylimitedtheopportunitiesofsomeChicanostohonetheirskillsaswritersofSpanish,theirbilingualcultureclearlyfosteredanexuberantandcompellingoraltradition.❷Ithasthusgenerallybeenbywayoftheemphasisonoralli creativitythattheseChicanowriters,whoseEnglish-languageworksaresometimesuninspired,developedthepowerfulandarrestinglanguagethatcharacterizedtheirSpanish-languageworks.❸ThisSpanish-Englishdifferenceisnotsurprising.❹WhenwritinginSpanish,theseauthorsstayedclosetothespokentraditionsoftheircommunitieswherepublication,support,andinstructiveresponsewouldcomequicklyinlocalorregionalnewspapers.❺WorksinEnglish,however,oftenrequiredtheeliminationofnuanceorcolloquialism,theadoptionofaformaltone,andtheadjustmentofthemesorideastosatisfythedifferentdemandsofnational❶虽然历史上正规西班牙语教育的机会的缺乏起初限制了某些Chicano人磨练自己的技术以及成为通过强调口语文学的创造性，这些Chicano作家才形成了铿锵有力且让人着迷的语言，这也是他们西班法、采取正式的语气、调整或想法来满足性物的不同的需要。Itistheirsensitive❶Itistheirsensitiveresponsetohumancircumstancethataccountsforthepersistenceofcertainuniversalideas.❷RabbiMeir,asecond-centuryscholar,admonishedhisdisciplestolooknotatthepitcherbutatitscontentsbecause,hestated,“Manyanewpitcherhasbeenfoundtobefullofoldwine.”❸Thiswashiswayofemphasizingtheimportanceofthedistinctionbetweenformandidea,andofstressingthattheintegrityofanideaismoreimportantthantheformofitsexpression.❶对人类环境的敏锐反应可以解释某些普适思想存在的原因。❷RabbiMeir告诫自己的，要看罐子装了什么、而不要看罐子本身，他说：“这是因为许多新罐装的是旧酒”。❸这❶Creativeideasnotonlyproducetheirowninstrumentsofsurvivalastimeandcircumstancesdemand,butpermitthesubstitutionofnewformsforoldunderthepressureofchangedcircumstances.❷Forexampledemocracy,asanidea,originatedinancientGreeceandwascarriedfromtheretoWesternEuropeandtheAmericas.❸ButitdidnotretaintheancientGreekform:itpassedthroughseveralreformingprocessesandexiststodayinmanycountries.❹Democratic ernmentsdifferinformbecausedemocracyisinprincipledynamicandhasthereforerespondedtolocalneeds.持古希腊的形式：它经历数次，现在存在于多个国家之中。❹也在形式上不同，因为Thisisnottodenythat❶ThisisnottodenythattheBlackmusicoftheearlytwentiethcenturydifferedinimportantwaysfromtheslavespirituals.❷Whereasspiritualswerecreatedanddisseminatedinfolkfashion,musicwascomposed,published,copyrighted,andsoldbyprofessionals.❸Nevertheless,improvisationremainedcentraltomusic.❹OnehasonlytolistentotherecordedrepertoireofsongstorealizethatBlacksingersrarelysangasongpreciselythesamewaytwiceandneveraccordingtoitsexactmusicalnotation.❺Theyperformedwhatjazzmusicianscall“headarrangements”proceedingfromtheirownfeelingsandfromtheway“thespirit”movedthematthetime.❻Thisimprovisatoryelementwasreflectedinthemannerinwhichmusicwaspublished.❼BlackcomposersscoredthemusicintendedforWhitesinginggroupsfully,indicatingthevariousvocalpartsandthe paniment,butthemusicproducedforBlacksingersincludedonlyavocallineandpiano 歌的形式被创造和的，而音乐是由专业创作、、拿到后的。❸可是，即兴创作对于音乐仍然是很重要的。❹人们去听歌曲录制的全部曲目就会了解到歌手几乎不使出发，演唱的是爵士音乐家口中的“天资编排”的曲目。❻这种即兴元素反映在音乐的方式Bythetimethe❶BythetimetheAmericancoloniststookuparmsagainstGreatBritaininordertosecuretheirindependence,theinstitutionofBlackslaverywasdeeplyentrenched.❷Butthecontradictioninherentinthissituationwas,formany,asourceofconstantembarrassment.❸“Italwaysappearedamostiniquitousschemetome,”AbigailAdamswroteherhusbandin1774,“tofightourselvesforwhatwearedailyrobbingandplunderingfromthosewhohaveasgoodarightto domaswehave.”❶在殖民地人民为了独立拿起 总会使很多人感觉尴尬。❸“这对我来说好像是一个极其的，”AbigailAdams在1774年写信给 ❶ManyAmericansbesidesAbigailAdamswerestruckbytheinconsistencyoftheirstandduringtheWarofIndependence,andtheywerenotaversetomakingmovestoemancipatetheslaves.❷Quakersandotherreligiousgroupsorganizedantislaverysocieties,whilenumerousindividualsmanumittedtheirslaves.❸Infact,withinseveralyearsoftheendoftheWarofIndependence,mostoftheEasternstateshadmadeprovisionsforthegradualemancipationofslaves.❶和AbigailAdams一样，许多 期间都他们自相的立场，并且他们并不解放这些黑奴。❷公谊会 团体组织了反的团体，而同时许多人也解放了他们的。❸事实上，在独立 Tocqueville,apparently,was❶Tocqueville,apparently,waswrong.❷JacksonianAmericawasnotafluid,egalitariansocietywhereindividualwealthandpovertywereephemeralconditions.❸AtleastsoarguesE.PesseninhisiconoclasticstudyoftheveryrichintheUnitedStatesbetween1825and1850.❶Tocqueville显然是错了。❷在Jackson执政时期，并不是一个流动的主义社会，也不是一个个人贫富瞬息万变的社会。❸至少，在EPessen18251850❶Pessendoespresentatyofexamples,togetherwithsomerefreshinglyinligiblestatistics,toestablishtheexistenceofaninordinaywealthyclass.❷Thoughactiveincommerceortheprofessions,mostofthewealthywerenotself-made,buthadinheritedfamilyfortunes.❸Innosensemercurial,thesegreatfortunessurvivedthefinancialpanicsthatdestroyedlesserones.❹Indeed,inseveralcitiesthewealthiestonepercentconstantlyincreaseditsshareuntilby1850itownedhalfofthecommunity’swealth.❺Althoughtheseobservationsaretrue,PessenoverestimatestheirimportancebyconcludingfromthemthattheundoubtedprogresstowardinequalityinthelateeighteenthcenturyintheJacksonianperiodandthattheUnitedStateswasaclass-ridden,plutocraticsocietyevenbeforeindustrialization.❶Pessen确实列举了大量事例以及一些让人耳目一新且简单易懂的统计数字，来证明确实存在极度富有的。❷尽管他们在商界业界非常活跃，但大部分不是他们白手起家获得的，而是通过继承家业获得的。❸可以肯定的是，这些继承来的巨大经受住了金融大的冲击，而较小规模的却被摧毁。❹实际上，几个城市里最富有的1%一直到1850年持续不断地积累自己的，他们拥有了全社会一半的。❺尽管这些观察结果是正确的，但Pessen还是由于高估了这种情况的重要性而得出了这样的结论：18世纪末发展起来的不现象一直延续到19世纪中叶Jackson总统时期是的，并且在工业化之前就是一个，财阀的社会。Inlargepartasa❶Inlargepartasaconsequenceofthefeministmovement,historianshavefocusedagreatdealofattentioninrecentyearsondeterminingmoreaccuraythestatusofwomeninvariousperiods.❷Althoughmuchhasbeen plishedforthemodernperiod,premoderncultureshaveprovedmoredifficult:sourcesarerestrictedinnumber,fragmentary,difficulttointerpret,andoftencontradictory.❸Thusitisnotparticularlysurprisingthatsomeearlierscholarshipconcerningsuchcultureshassofargoneunchallenged.❹AnexampleisJohannBachofen’s1861treatiseonAmazons,women-ruledsocietiesofquestionableexistencecontemporarywithancientGreece.女在各个历史时期的地位。❷虽然对现当代的研究成绩斐然，但对古代文化的研究则被证明是更加❶Startingfromthepremisethatmythologyandlegendpreserveatleastanucleusofhistoricalfact,Bachofenarguedthatwomenweredominantinmanyancientsocieties.❷HisworkwasbasedonacomprehensivesurveyofreferencesintheancientsourcestoAmazonianandothersocietieswithmatrilinealcustoms—societiesinwhichdescentandpropertyrightsaretracedthroughthefemaleline.❸SomesupportforhistheorycanbefoundinevidencesuchasthatdrawnfromHerodotus,theGreek“historian”ofthefifthcenturyB.C.,whospeaksofanAmazoniansociety,theSauromatae,wherethewomenhuntedandfoughtinwars.Awomaninthissocietywasnotallowedtomarryuntilshehadkilleda inbattle.❶从史实的至少存在于神话、中这一前提出发，Bachofen认为女性在许多古代社会中占据着地位。❷他的研究对古料来源中的参考材料进行综合考虑，而这些参考材料涉及到Amazonian和其他带有母系习俗的社会——在这些社会内，亲缘关系和财产所均经由女性这条线来追溯。❸可以找到一些支持他理论的，如从Herodotus那里获取的曾谈到某个Amazonian社会，即Sauromatae，在此社会内，女性进行狩猎并在中。该社会中的女性必须在战斗中杀死一❶Nonetheless,thisassumptionthatthefirstrecordersofancientmythshavepfactsisproblematic.❷IfonebeginsbyexaminingwhyancientsrefertoAmazons,it esclearthatancientGreekdescriptionsofsuchsocietiesweremeantnotsomuchtorepresentobservedhistoricalfact—realAmazoniansocieties—butrathertooffer“morallessons”onthesupposed eofwomen’sruleintheirownsociety.❸TheAmazonswereoftencharacterized,forexample,astheequivalentsofgiantsandcentaurs,enemiestobeslainbyGreekheroes.❹Theircustomswerepresentednotasthoseofarespectablesociety,butastheveryantithesesofordinaryGreekpractices.眼目睹的历史事实——真正的Amazon社会——还不如说是为女性可能产生的进行“道德训导”❶Thus,Iwouldargue,thepurposeofaccountsoftheAmazonsfortheirmaleGreekrecorderswasdidactic,toteachbothmaleandfemaleGreeksthatall-femalegroups,formedbywithdrawalfromtraditionalsociety,aredestructiveanddangerous.❷MythsabouttheAmazonswereusedasargumentsforthemale-dominatedstatusquo,inwhichgroupscomposedexclusivelyofeither werenotpermittedtosegregatethemselvespermanentlyfromsociety.❸Bachofenwasthusmisledinhisrelianceonmythsforinformationaboutthestatusofwomen.❹Thesourcesthatwillprobablylcontemporaryhistoriansmostaboutwomenintheancientworldaresuchsocial sasgravestones,wills,andmarriagecontracts.❺Studiesofsuch havealreadybeguntoshowhowmistakenwearewhenwetrytoderiveourpictureoftheancientworldexclusivelyfromli rysources,especiallymyths.因此，我认为对于述神话的希腊来描述mon人的目的是，要教诲古腊的男性和女性这样一道理，即那脱离了传统会形成的纯女性群是有破坏性、是 的。有关mon人的神话是用来为的状作护的，在这种状下，仅仅由一 构成群不允许与社会永性隔绝开来。如此说来Bhon依赖神话来获取有关女性地位的料是有误导性的。有关古代界的妇女的可能对当学家最具价值的料是这样一社会性文献如墓碑、遗嘱、婚约。这类文献料的研究很证明我们犯了多大的错误，当我们试图从文学材料中，尤其从神话中，取我们对古世的理解时犯的错，。Traditionalresearchhas❶TraditionalresearchhasconfrontedonlyMexicanandUnitedStatesinterpretationsofMexican-Americanculture.❷NowwemustalsoexaminethecultureasweMexicanAmericanshaveexperiencedit,passingfromasovereignpeopletocompatriotswithnewlyarrivingsettlersto,finally,aconqueredpeople—acharter(agrantorguaranteeofrights,franchises,orprivilegesfromthesovereignpowerofastateorcountry)minorityonourownland.❶对墨西哥文化的传统研究一直着只有来自墨西哥的和的两种解释。❷对于这种文化，现在我们也必须按照美籍墨西哥人所经历的那样来，从一个独立自主的民族变成新来居民的同胞，最后变成一个被征服的民族，一个在自己的土地上持有的少数民族。❶WhentheSpanishfirstcametoMexico,theyintermarriedwithandabsorbedthecultureoftheindigenousns.❷Thisofcolonizationthroughacculturationwas whenMexicoacquiredTexasintheearly1800’sandbroughttheindigenousnsintoMexicanlifeand ernment.❸Inthe1820’s,UnitedStatescitizensmigratedtoTexas,attractedbylandsuitableforcotton.❹Astheirnumbersbecamemoresubstantial,theirofacquiringlandbysubduingnativepopulationsbegantodominate.❺Thetwoideologiesclashedrepeatedly,culminatinginamilitary thatledtovictoryfortheUnitedStates.❻Thus,suddenlydeprivedofourparentculture,wehadtoevolveuniquelyMexican-Americanmodesofthoughtandactioninordertosurvive.19世纪初的墨西哥取得Txs19世纪20年代时，民因Txs土地适宜种植棉花而迁移到那。民人数越来越多时，用征服本地人的办法来获取土地的政策开始盛行。❺两种思想不断发生，发展到顶点就爆发了军事，结果获胜。❻这样，墨西哥人突然被了自己的传统文化，为了Throughouthuman❶Throughouthumanhistorytherehavebeenmanystringenttaboosconcerningwatchingotherpeopleeatoreatinginthepresenceofothers.❷Therehavebeenattemptstoexinthesetaboosintermsofinappropriatesocialrelationshipseitherbetweenthosewhoareinvolvedandthosewhoarenotsimultaneouslyinvolvedinthesatisfactionofabodilyneed,orbetweenthosealreadysatiatedandthosewhoappeartobeshamelessly❸Undoubtedlysuchelementsexistinthetaboos,butthereisanadditionalelementwithamuchmorefundamentalimportance.❹Inprehistorictimes,whenfoodwassopreciousandth