概念考察与认知工具

概念考察与认知工具

西南大学杜世洪12/6/2023Du2/6/2023Du2/6/2023Du声明：1.本讲座属于方法论的讲座，目的并不局限在语言实例本身的描写与解释上，更重要的是要注意做实例分析时所沿用的方法。2.不要局限在本讲座提及的方法上，更重要的是要从这些方法中得到某些启示。3.Imaybewrong,youmayberight,andbyaneffort,wemaygetnearertothetruth.—KarlPopper.本讲座希望达到的目标1.听完讲座后，对“概念”有点专门的概念。2.听完讲座后，对常见的“认知工具”有点认识。3.听完讲座后，对日常语言中的一些现象多一点认识。提要0.语言现象的困惑1.语言概念的界定2.概念考察的工具3.认知工具的运用

42/6/2023Du0.语言现象的困惑看看下列句子，回答几个问题：你读得懂它们吗？你很确定它们的意义吗？你有什么困惑没有？0.语言现象的困惑1）王冕死了父亲vs王冕读了研究生。2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。3）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马X6。4）这个老师像个人。5）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。6）你我有相同的轿车vs你我有相同的未婚妻。7）你是我唯一信赖过的人。8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。9）“我吃过晚饭了”翻译成“Ihadmysupper”对吗？要准确理解，就要有系统的方法和正确的工具！方法概括：明类、知故、晓理！如题入题1.语言概念的界定1.0什么是概念？1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？1.2为什么要进行概念考察？1.3什么是“认知”呢？1.0什么是概念？本体论问题依靠认识论的方法来回答。概念是cognitivescience,cognitivelinguistics,sociology,computerscience,logicandphilosophyoflanguage等领域的核心内容.1.0什么是概念？民间的观点：Concept——概念、观念、思想；总的印象、思维的产物，发明，创造等用法上：Newconcept;basicconcept;designconcept;marketingconcept;conceptmap;conceptfoods…重庆人的话：那是啥子慨念啰？……循环？清楚吗？专家的看法呢？1.0什么是概念？康德（Kant）认为：我们的reason必须具备什么样的structure、capacities和concepts，我们才能进行认知活动，如进行数学运算、判断等。（Melchert1999:436）‘Intuitionandconceptsconstitute,therefore,theelementsofknowledge’.（Kant,CPR,92）“Thoughtswithoutcontentareempty,andintuitionwithoutconceptsareblind.”（Kant,CPR,93）康德（Kant）认为：康德对concept的界定是：Aconcept,Kanttellsus,isakindofruleforoperatingonintuitions.（Melchert1999:441）在康德看来，Tohaveaconceptistohaveanability.1.0什么是概念？专家的观点：GillesFauconnierandMarkTurner：ConceptualblendingConceptual

blendingisafundamentalinstrumentoftheeverydaymind,usedinourbasicconstrualofallourrealities,fromthesocialtothescientific.(Turner,M.1997.TheLiteraryMind.OxfordUP,p.93)1.0什么是概念？学者的观点：GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson：Conceptualsystem“Ourordinaryconceptual

system,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980.MetaphorsWeLiveby.TheUniversityofChicagoPress,p.3)Howisourconceptualsystemgrounded?“Weclaimthatmostofournormalconceptual

systemismetaphoricallystructured;thatismostconceptsarepartiallyunderstoodintermsofotherconcepts.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p56)1.0什么是概念？“Theprimecandidatesforconceptsthatareunderstooddirectlyarethesimplespatialconcepts,suchasUP,…UP-DOWN,FRONT-BACK,IN-OUT,NEAR-FAR.”(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p56)“Therefore,wheneverinthisbookwespeakofmetaphors,suchasARGUMENTISWAR,itshouldbeunderstoodthatmetaphor

means

metaphorical

concept.”

(Lakoff,G.andJohnson,M.1980:p6)这里看出：概念既表现为词，又表现为语句。1.0什么是概念？学者的观点：EdwardE.Smith,1998Incognitivepsychologyandphilosophyofmind,conceptsareassumedtobethebasicconstituentsofthoughtandbelief.Inlinguisticsthestudyofwordmeaningsorlexicalrepresentationsofteninvolvesthestudyofthoseconceptsthatarecodedbysinglewords.Andinartificialintelligence,moreoftenthannot,proposalsaboutknowledgerepresentationsareproposalsaboutconcepts.Moreoverineachofthesedisciplinesconceptsareintimatelylinkedtotheprocessofdrawinginductiveinferences.(EdwardE.Smith,1998,ConceptsandInduction.InFoundationsofCognitiveSciences,ed.ByM.Posner,pp501-526)1.0什么是概念？学者的观点：JerryA.Fodor:WhatConceptsHavetoBe?Twoofitsmainthesesare:—thatifyouaregoingtorunarepresentational/computationaltheoryofmind(thatis,anyversionofRTM;seeChapter1)youwillneedatheory

of

concepts.And:—thatnoneofthetheoriesofconceptsthatarecurrentlytakenatallseriouslyeitherincognitivescienceorinphilosophycanconceivablyfillthebill.(Fodor,J.A.1998.Concepts:WhereCognitiveScienceWentWrong.OxfordUP,p23)1.0什么是概念？

JerryA.Fodor:WhatConceptsHavetoBe?Conceptsarementalparticulars;specifically,theysatisfywhateverontologicalconditionshavetobemetbythingsthatfunctionasmentalcausesandeffects.Conceptsarecategoriesandareroutinelyemployedassuch.Compositionality:conceptsaretheconstituentsofthoughtsand,inindefinitelymanycases,ofoneanother.Mentalrepresentationsinherittheircontentsfromthecontentsoftheirconstituents.Quitealotofconceptsmustturnouttobelearned.Conceptsarepublic;they'rethesortsofthingsthatlotsofpeoplecan,anddo,share.1.0什么是概念？EdouardMachery(inConceptsandFuzzyLogic2011.TheMITPress)Inpsychologyandinrelateddisciplines(e.g.,cognitiveneuroscience,AI),aconceptofx(e.g.,aconceptofdog)isusuallytakentobeabody

of

knowledge

about

x(e.g.,dogs)thatisusedbydefaultinthecognitiveprocessesthatunderwritemosthighercognitivecompetenceswhenwemakeajudgmentaboutx(e.g.,ajudgmentaboutdogs).Thus,aconcept

of

xisasubsetoftheknowledgeaboutxwestoreinlong-termmemory;or,toputitdifferently,onlypartofourknowledgeaboutxconstitutesourconceptofx.1.0什么是概念？RayJackendoff:WhatIsaConcept,ThataPersonMayGraspIt?E-ConceptsandI-ConceptsThereisafundamentaltensionintheordinarylanguagetermconcept.Ononehand,itissomethingoutthereintheworld:"theNewtonianconceptofmass"issomethingthatisspokenofasthoughitexistsindependentlyofwhoactuallyknowsorgraspsit.Likewise,"graspingaconcept"evokescomparisontograspingaphysicalobject,exceptthatonesomehowdoesitwithone'smindinsteadofone'shand.Ontheotherhand,aconceptisspokenofasanentitywithinone'shead,aprivateentity,aproductoftheimaginationthatcanbeconveyedtoothersonlybymeansoflanguage,gesture,drawing,orsomeotherimperfectmeansofcommunication.(Concepts:Corereadings,1999,p282)1.0什么是概念？RussellFregeConcept=Logicalpropername+PropertiesAconcepthascontainedasetofpropositions.至此，感觉有点乱？？1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？ConceptsasdefinitionConceptsasprototypeConceptsasschemaorframeConceptsasproposition1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？Conceptsasdefinition:Theclassicalview:TypicallytohaveaconceptofXistoknowsomethingaboutthepropertiesofX'sinstances.Hencewhatisrepresentedinaconceptispresumablyinformationaboutproperties.

说这个经典，是因为Aristotle持这样的观点。1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？Anoldandinfluentialideaisthatthepropertiesthatcompriseaconceptaresinglynecessaryandjointlysufficienttodefinetheconcept.

Forapropertytobesinglynecessary,everyinstanceoftheconceptmusthaveit;forasetofpropertiestobejointlysufficient,everyentityhavingthatsetmustbeaninstanceoftheconcept.比如：Grandmother的概念属性：[+old,-male,+parent]1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？Howtospecifydefiningproperties?Universal?老虎的定义特征是什么呢？条纹、肉食、猫科？TypicalityEffects1.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？Anumberofexperimentalfindingsabouthowpeopleusenatural-kindconceptsareproblematicfortheclassicalview.Peoplecanreliablyordertheinstancesofanyconceptwithrespecttohow"typical"or"representative"theyareoftheconcept.1.1典型特征认知实验数据FruitRating(0-7)Apple6.25Grape5.13Watermelon4.06Coconut3.06Olive2.26BirdRating(0-7)Robin6.89Swallow6.16Owl5.0Chicken3.95Penguin2.631.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？ConceptsasPrototypesUndertheprototypeviewanobjectiscategorizedasaninstanceofaconceptifitissufficientlysimilartotheprototype,

similaritybeingdeterminedinpartbythenumberofpropertiesthattheobjectandprototypeshare.IllustrationsofHowtoUseListedPropertiestoCalculateanInstance'sSimilaritytoPrototypePropertiesrobinswallowvulturechickenpenguinflies+++--sings++---layseggs++-++small++---nestsintree+++--eatinsects++---Similaritytobird66-2-4-41.2为什么要进行概念考察？概念通过语言表达式呈现出来。但是，一个语言表达式并不等于一个概念。一个概念是多种属性的复合体或者说集合。所以，对一个语言表达式的解读，势必要借助于相应的认知工具。常见的认知工具有哪些呢？认知工具？什么是cognition?Whatiscognition?theacquisitionofknowledgethroughperceptionandexperience,theorganizationofknowledgeintomentalstructures;theconsciousorunconsciousinterpretationofexperiencesonthebasisofpreviouslystoredknowledgeandmentaloperations.

Inshort,cognitionis

thewaywethink!试比较：什么是

cognitivelinguistics?Cognitive

linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageinrelationtohumancognition;orthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.2.概念考察的工具0）认知描写与认知解释（cognitivedescriptionandexplanation）1）类与例（TypeandToken)2）分析与综合（AnalyticandSynthetic）3）必然与偶然（NecessaryandContingent）4）先验与经验（Aprioriandaposteriori）5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）6）共相与殊相（universalandparticular）7）使用与提及（useandmention）8）内在与外在（internalandexternal）2.概念考察的工具9）主观与客观（subjectiveandobjective）10）范畴与情态（categoricalandmodal）11）本性与习性（naturalandconventional)12）复合与整体（compositionalandholistic）13）演绎与归纳（deductionandinduction）14）开放与闭合（openandclose）15）连续与离散（continualanddiscrete）16）……3.认知工具的运用回到前面的例子1）王冕死了父亲vs王冕读了研究生。2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。3）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马X6。4）这个老师像个人。5）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。6）你我有相同的轿车vs你我有相同的未婚妻。7）你是我唯一信赖过的人。8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。9）“我吃过晚饭了”翻译成“Ihadmysupper”对吗？3.认知工具的运用0）认知描写与解释DescriptionvsExplanation描写thewaywecommunicate解释thewaywethink3.认知工具的运用试看先例：例6）你我有相同的轿车vs你我有相同的未婚妻。类相同vs例相同（type-identicalortoken-identical)？1）类与例（TypeandToken)YouandIhavethesamecar.YouandIhavethesamefiancée.Whatdoesthewordsamemeanhere?Whatthisexampleshowsisthattotalkofthe‘same’Xisambiguous.1）类与例（TypeandToken)Thetype/tokendistinctionisimportantwithregardtoidentity.Twothingsthatarethesameineveryrespect,butwhicharenot,infact,oneobject,aresaidtobetype-identical.Eachtype-identicalobjectorpersonissaidtobeatokenofthatsingletype.Whenwehavetwoterms–forexample,myfiancéeandyourfiancée–butonlyonereferent,wesaythetwotermsrefertoonesinglethingthatistoken-identical.2）分析与综合（AnalyticandSynthetic）:

类推与类比

5）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。1）王冕死了父亲vs王冕读了研究生。2）分析与综合（AnalyticandSynthetic）alinguisticdistinction.Analyticsentencesaretruemerelyinvirtueofthemeaningsofthewords("Allbachelorsareunmarried"istheusualexample).Syntheticstatements,bycontrast,isfixatedontheexternalworld(atleasttosomedegree).

442/6/2023Du2）分析与综合Thisdistinctionmayalsobeconstruedinargumentform.Forexample,ifyouthinkthat“AhQ（阿Q）”isabachelorandyouthenconcludeheisnotmarried,youhavemadeananalyticjudgment,sinceinsayingheisnotmarriedyouhavesaidnothingthatisnotalreadycontainedinthethoughtthatheisabachelor.2）分析与综合If,however,youthinkthatsomethingiswaterandyoujudgethatitboilsat100°C,youaremakingasyntheticjudgment,sincenothinginthemerethoughtthatsomethingiswatercantellyouwhatitsboilingpointis.3）必然与偶然（NecessaryandContingent）

4）先验与经验（Aprioriandaposteriori）Metaphysical/Epistemicdistinctions8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。前半截必然，后半截偶然。2+2=4；4）先验与经验（Aprioriandaposteriori）Aprioriandaposterioriareepistemicnotionstheyhavetodowithourknowledge.Apropositionissaidtobe'apriori'ifwecanknowitonthebasisofreasonalone,withoutappealtoexperience.Myknowledgethat'2+2=4'isanexampleofaprioriknowledge.Scientificknowledge,bycontrast,isempirical(or'aposteriori').482/6/2023Du3）必然与偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Necessaryvs.ContingentNecessaryvs.contingentaremetaphysicalnotions–theyconcernhowtheworldis(independentlyofourknowledge)orhowitmighthavebeen…independentlyofthought.492/6/2023Du3）必然与偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Naturalkinds(water,gold,electron,electromagneticfield,etc.)haveessentialandcontingentattributes.Forinstance,waterisessentiallyH2O.Ifthatstuff(e.g.,theonewhichcomesfromfaucets)didnothavethechemicalstructureH2O,thenitwouldnot/couldnotbewhatitis.Onthecontrary,temperatureisacontingentpropertyofwater.502/6/2023Du3）必然与偶然（NecessaryandContingent）Apropositionisnecessarilytrueifitcouldnothavebeenfalse(e.g.2+2=4,again).Contingentpropositionsareonesthatcould(inprinciple)havehaddifferenttruthvalues.Forexample,itismerelycontingentlytruethatyouarelisteningtomerightnow.WecanimaginesomeotherpossibleworldinsteadwhereyouarewatchingT.V.orsomethingelse.512/6/2023Du5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。3）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马X6。4）这个老师像个人。5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）dere

vs.

dedictomodalityAdistinctioninmodallogicRemember:‘dere’meansconcerningthething（涉实）.Deremodality:modaltermsapplytothepossessionofanattributebyanobjectDedictomodality:modaltermsapplytoastatementorproposition.Itmeans“concerningtheproposition”(涉名)532/6/2023Du5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）Dedicto:Abelievesthatordesiresx.MarybelievesthatanFBIagentshotJFK.SisterFurong（芙蓉姐姐）desirestobeafamousmoviestar.Dere:ThereisanxsuchthatAbelievesordesiresit.ThereisanFBIagentwhomMarybelievesshotJFK.Thereisafamousmoviestar（say,FanBingbing)whomSisterFurongwantstobe.5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）So,togiveanotherexample,ifIsay,‘IwanttobuyaBMW730’,mydesireisdedicto

ifanyBMW730willdo,butdere

ifIhaveaparticularcarinmind,perhapstheonemyneighboristhinkingofsellingataknock-downpricetoflatterme.我们要推选一个副校长。5）涉实与涉名（dereanddedicto）Thedere/dedicto

distinctionisalsoimportantinmattersofnecessity.Forinstance,ifProfessorJiangistheoldestpersoninChongqing,inwhatsense,ifany,isitcorrecttosaythatheisnecessarilytheoldestpersoninChongqing?涉名的必然性与涉实的必然性IfIamsitting,thenIamnecessarilynotstanding.Dedictoreading:thestatementthat[ifsomeoneissittingthensheisnotstanding]isanecessaryone,soondedictoreading,theabovesentenceisTRUE.Thisisbecausesittingandstandingaredisjunctivelyrelated（析取；选言）

–‘sitting’applies