欧洲文化入门3Middle Ages

EuropeanCulture:AnIntroductionDivisionThreeTheMiddleAgesTheMiddleAgesⅠ.GeneralIntroductionⅡ.ManorandChurchⅢ.LearningandScienceⅣ.LiteratureⅤ.ArtandArchitecture

I.GeneralIntroductionInEuropeanhistory,thethousand-yearperiodfollowingthefalloftheWesternRomanEmpireinthefifthcenturyiscalledtheMiddleAges.I.GeneralIntroductionBetweenancienttimesandmoderntimes.WesternEurope:asceneofwarsandinvasions传统上认为这是欧洲文明史上比较贫乏的时期。欧洲的封建社会主要经历了三个发展阶段：公元5世纪至11世纪，这是欧洲封建社会的形成时期；公元11世纪至15世纪，欧洲处于封建制度的鼎盛时期；公元15世纪至17世纪，欧洲的封建经济逐渐瓦解，开始从封建制度向资本主义制度过渡。

I.GeneralIntroductionFeudalismwastheprimarypoliticalsystemoftheMiddleAges.TheexistenceoffeudalismisoneofthemostimportantfactsabouttheMiddleAges.ItisthiswhichmakesthegovernmentofthatperiodsodifferentfromthegovernmentsofGreeceandRome,andalsofromthegovernmentsoftoday.Inthecompletedsystem,thekingofthelandstoodatthetop;thenunderhimwerehisvassals,andunderthemweretheirvassals,—andsoonuntilthepeasants.Theywerelandless“serfs”andhadtosupportalltheclassesabovethem.TheMiddleAgesisalsocalledthe“AgeofFaith”：DuringtheMedievaltimestherewasnocentralgovernmenttokeeptheorder.TheonlyorganizationthatseemedtouniteEuropewastheChristianchurch.Itcontinuedtogainwidespreadpowerandinfluence.IntheLateMiddleAges,almosteveryoneinwesternEuropewasaChristianandamemberofChristianchurch.Christianitytooktheleadinpolitics,law,art,andlearningforhundredsofyears.Itshapedpeople’slives.II.Manor

andChurch

Feudalism

TheChurch

TheCrusades

FeudalismFeudalisminEuropewasmainlyasystemoflandholding–asystemofholdinglandinexchangeformilitaryservice.ThegrowthofthefeudalsystemwasgoingoneverywhereinWesternEuropefromabouttheeighthtotheeleventhcenturies.Itgrewslowly,butitgrewsurely.FeudalismwasderivedfromtheLatin“feudum”,meaningagrantofland.GrowthofFeudalismWhenthewesternRomanEmpiregrewweak,peoplelivedinconstantdangerofattacksfrominvadersandrobbers.Ownersofsmallfarmssoughtprotectionfromlargeland-owners,bygivingthemlandandservices.Inreturnthelargelandownerspromisedtoprotectthelandlesspeasantsandtheirfamilies.Thenin732CharlesMartel,aFrankishrulergavehissoldersestatesknownasfiefsasarewardfortheirservice.After800,thekingsinEuropewereusuallyveryweak.Somenoblesgrewmorepowerfulthantheking,andbecameindependentrulers.TheManorThecentreofmedievallifeunderfeudalismwasthemanor.Manorswerefoundedonthefiefsofthelords.Somelordsownedonlyonemanor;othersownedmany.Theylivedinamanorhouse.Bythetwelfthcenturymanorhousesweremadeofstoneanddesignedasfortresses.Theycametobecalledcastles.KnighthoodandCodeofChivalryAlmostallnobleswereknightsintheMedievaldays.Butnoonewasbornaknight.Anoblebeganhiseducationasapageatseven.Hewastaughttosayhisprayers,learnedgoodmannersandranerrandsfortheladies.Ataboutfourteen,thepagebecameasquireorassistanttoaknightwhobecamehismaster.Hewastaughtthedutiesofaknightandpracticedusingasward,lanceandshield.Hewentintobattlewithhismaster.Ifthesquireprovedtobeagoodfighter,hewouldbemadeaknightataspecialceremonyknownasdubbing.Asaknight,hewaspledgedtoprotecttheweak,tofightforthechurch,tobeloyaltohislordandtorespectwomenofnoblebirth.Theseruleswereknownascodeofchivalry.

TheChurchTheOrganizationofChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchAfter1054,theChurchwasdividedintotheRomanCatholicChurchandtheEasternOrthodoxChurch.InordertodevelopacivilizationbasedonChristianity,theCatholicChurchmadeLatintheofficiallanguageandhelpedtopreserveandpassontheheritageoftheRomanEmpire.TheOrganizationofChurchTheCatholicChurchwasahighlycentralizedanddisciplinedinternationalorganization.Pope(supremehead)ReligiousOitarymonastic2.livedinmonasteries(abbeys)governedbyabbotsArchbishops(province)CollegeofCardinals1.electedpope2.servedasadvisors3.nextinpowertopopeBishops(diocese)Priests(parish)LayMembersofCatholicChurchChurchFatherandEarlyMonasticismInthebeginningthecontroversywasmainlyovertheplaceofChristinthetrinity--Power(theFather),wisdom(theSon)andLove(theHolySpirit).圣父，圣子与圣灵AnotablechampionofearlymonasticismwasSt.Jerome,whotranslatedintoLatinbothOldandNewTestamentsfromtheHebrewandGreekoriginals.ThemostimportantofalltheleadersofChristianthoughtwasAugustineofHippowholivedinNorthAfricainthefifthcentury.“TheConfession”and“TheCityofGod”byhimaremasterpiecesofworldrenown.AnothergreatearlymonkwasSt.BenedictwhofoundedBenedictineRuleinabout529A.D.ThePowerandInfluenceoftheCatholicChurchUnderfeudalism,peopleofwesternEuropeweremainlydividedintothreeclasses:

clergy,lordsandpeasants.TheMedievalChurchwasthecentreofdailylifeinthecountryandtownalike,andithadapartinallimportantevents.TheCrusadesTheCrusadeswereaseriesofreligiouslysanctionedmilitarycampaigns,wagedbymuchofRomanCatholicEurope.EightchiefCrusades:FirstCrusade-1096-1099SecondCrusade-1147-1149ThirdCrusade-1189-1192FourthCrusade-1202-1204FifthCrusade-1218-1221SixthCrusade-1228-1229SeventhCrusade-1248-1254EighthCrusade-1270ConsequencesoftheCrusades

TheybroughttheEastintoclosercontactwiththeWest,andgreatlyinfluencedthehistoryofEurope.Crusadeshelpedtobreakdownfeudalism.Thecrusadesalsoresultedinrenewingpeople’sinterestinlearningandinvention.

Ⅲ.LearningandScience

CharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceAlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningSt.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceCharlemagneandCarolingianRenaissanceCharlemagne查理曼大帝(742-814),amongmanyotherthingshedid,encouragedlearningbysettingupmonasteryschools,givingsupporttoscholarsandsettingscribestoworkcopingvariousancientbooks.他创造了加洛林王朝，在行政、司法、军事制度及经济生产等方面都有杰出的建树，并大力发展文化教育事业。是他引入了欧洲文明，他被后世尊称为“欧洲之父”。TheresultofCharlemagne’seffortisusuallycalledthe“CarolingianRenaissance”AlfredtheGreatandWessexCentreofLearningAlfredtheGreat

(849-899),ruleroftheAnglo-SaxonkingdomofWessex,alearnedman,worriedaboutthedisappearanceoflearningandmadeWessextheAnglo-Saxonculturalcentrebyintroducingteachersandscholars,foundingnewmonasteries,andpromotingtranslationsintothevernacularfromLatinworks.St.ThomasAquinasandScholasticismSt.ThomasAquinas圣托马斯阿奎那

(1225-1274)wasanItalianPhilosopherandtheologian,thesupremefigureinscholasticism,themedievalphilosophicalefforttoharmonizefaithandreason.Works:SummaContraVentiles,SummaTheologicaRogerBaconandExperimentalScienceRogerBacon罗吉尔·培根

(about1220-1292),amonk,wasoneoftheearliestadvocatesofscientificresearch.Hecalledforcarefulobservationandexperimentation.Work:Opusmaius《自然科学总则》NotFrancisBacon（1561--1626）IV.Literature

NationalEpics

DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedy

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesNationalEpicsNationalepicreferstotheepicwritteninvernacularlanguages--thatis,thelanguagesofvariousnationalstatesthatcameintobeingintheMiddleAges.a.Beowulfb.SongofRolandBeowulfBeowulfistheconventionaltitleofanOldEnglishheroicepicpoemconsistingof3182alliterativelonglines,setinScandinavia,commonlycitedasoneofthemostimportantworksofAnglo-Saxonliterature.ItscompositionbyananonymousAnglo-Saxonpoetisdatedbetweenthe8thandtheearly11thcentury.BeowulfInthepoem,Beowulf,aherooftheGeats,battlesthreeantagonists:Grendel,whohasbeenattackingtheresidentwarriorsofthemeadhallofHroðgar(thekingoftheDanes),Grendel'smother,andanunnameddragon.Afterthefirsttwovictories,BeowulfgoeshometoGeatlandinSwedenandbecomeskingoftheGeats.Thelastfighttakesplacefiftyyearslater.Inthisfinalbattle,Beowulfisfatallywounded.Afterhisdeath,hisservantsburyhiminatumulusinGeatland.DanteAlighieriandTheDivineComedyDanteAlighieri但丁(1265-1321)，oneofthepioneersofRenaissance,wasthegreatestpoetofItalyandalsoaprosewriter,literarytheorist,moralphilosopheraswellaspoliticalthinker.恩格斯评价说：“封建的中世纪的终结和现代资本主义纪元的开端，是以一位大人物为标志的，这位人物就是意大利人但丁，他是中世纪的最后一位诗人，同时又是新时代的最初一位诗人”。Masterpiece:TheDivineComedy这部作品由《地狱》、《炼狱》和《天堂》三部分构成，各篇长短大致相等，通过作者与地狱、炼狱及天国中各种著名人物的对话，反映出中古文化领域的成就和一些重大的问题。在这部长达一万四千余行的史诗中，但丁强调人的“自由意志”，坚决反对中世纪的蒙昧主义、宗教宿命论，抨击教会的贪婪腐化和封建统治的黑暗残暴，歌颂有远大抱负和坚毅刚强的英雄豪杰，表达了执着地追求真理的思想。从中也可隐约窥见文艺复兴时期人文主义思想的曙光，对欧洲后世的诗歌创作有极其深远的影响。

GeofferyChaucerandTheCanterburyTalesChaucer乔叟(1340-1400)wasanEnglishpoet,afull-blownflowerofEnglishmedievalliterature.TheCan