英语写作PPT展示Refutation

Refutation

WhatHowExampleRefutationisthepartofanargumentwhereinaspeakerorwriteranticipatesandcountersopposingpointsofview.InformallogicAnobjection(alsocalledexpostulationorrefutation),isareasonarguingagainstpremise,lemma,ormaincontention.DefinitionGreco-RomansOriginTruth

doesnotfear

contention.Themorethe

truth

is

debated,thecleareritbecomes.Plato&AristotlePythagoreanschoolStoicismAristotle's

schoolConvinceyouraudiencethattheothersideiswrong.Convinceyouraudiencethatyoursideisright.GoalRefutetheclaimTypesRefutetheevidenceRefutethereasoningRelationshipIndirectrefutationRefutereasoningRefuteevidenceDirectrefutationRefutetheclaimStructureIntroductionBodyConclusionBackground/HookRefutation1Refutation2Refutation3RestatethesisAskquestions/StatethesisSummarizemainpointsPreviewthetargetpointsStrongclosingComparisonwithothersArgumentRefutationPersuasionNarrationDescriptionExpositionPersuasionRefutationContentTotellastoryTodescribe

sthToinformyouraudienceof

sthToconvinceyouraudiencethatyour

sideisrightToprovetheothersideis

wrongor

lessrightLanguageFeatureVividSimpleFluentClearDetailedFluentPreciseCommonConciseConciseConvincingLogicalConciseRigorousLogicalComparisonExerciseTherefutationisasuccessorfailure?Conversation1.Tom:I’msuregladmynephewgotanewcar.Thatotheronehewasdrivinghadterriblebrakesandnowindshieldwipers.Jerry:Yournephewdidn’tgetanewcar.Thatcaryouseehimdrivingishisroommate’s.(Success)Conversation2.Susan:Portlandisabout400milesfromChico.

Bob:No,it’snot.It’s389miles.(Failure)Conversation3.Fred:Angelsdon’texist.

Donna:Suretheydo.Lookatallthebookswrittenaboutangelsthatarebestsellers!Lookatthefaiththatsomanypeopleplaceinangels!Lookatallthegreatworksofartthatdealwithangels!Howcanyoupossiblequestionthesincereconvictionsofsomanypeople?(Failure)Conversation4.Don:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinWorldWarIIthanatomicweapons.

Martha:That’simpossible.Everyoneknowsthatatomicbombscausemoredamagethanconversationalbombs.(Failure)/item.htm?spm=a230r.1.14.339.ckmwG7&id=37913027016&qq-pf-to=pcqq.c2cWhatHowExampleHowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationTheintroductionofrefutationessayshouldincludethefollowing:Background;Asummaryoftheargumentyouarerefuting;Anacknowledgeofthestrengthsoftheargument,ifany;Theaspectsoftheargumentthatyoubelieveareflawed;HowtoWriteIntroductionHowtoWriteIntroduction2.BecharmingYoucanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingagoodcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity,andshowconcernforyourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.HowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationWhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation

HowtoWritebodyWhatOpposingArgumentsCanbeAttacked

HowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaimsTwobroadtestsofevidenceare:Istheevidencecorrect?Istheevidenceadequatetoprovetheargument?AttacksOnevidenceThenext……MoreparticularcriteriafortestingevidenceSo-calledAuthority

leansonthepopularityofsomeonewhomayhavelittleknowledgeoftheissueorproduct.

Example:

CNN'sLouDobbs,regularlyusesafigureof"20million"whendiscussingthenumberofillegalaliensonhisbroadcast"LouDobbsTonight.“However,thePEWCenter,amoreobjectivesourceplacesthenumberat11million.AttacksOnevidence22Flawedstatisticaldata

smallsampleandspecialsample;thetotalnumberofsamplesisunknown;

Example:Therewere13gun-relatedfatalitiesamongchildreneveryday,butdidn’ttelltheexactagerange.

AttacksOnevidence23Ignorethechangeofconditions

withoutconsideringthechangeoftime,spaceandotherexternalconditionswhichmayleadtothealterationofevidence.

Example:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinworldWarIIthanatomicweapons,soconventionalweaponsaremorelethal.However,it’sundertwodifferentcircumstances.AttacksOnevidence24Suppressedevidence

hidesomeaspectswhichisagainsttheclaim

Example:Anadvertisementclaimsaparticularcarhasmorehorsepowerand0-60speed,butfailstomentionitalsodoesworseincrashtests,andhasworsereliability.

AttacksOnevidence25Self-contradictoryevidenceIfyousayorwritesomethingthatis

self-contradictory,youmaketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue..

Example:BushhasblockedprescriptiondrugimportsfromCanadaoversafetyconcerns,buthealsosaidtheU.S.couldrelyonCanadaformorefluvaccine.AttacksOnevidence26Negativeevidence

theevidenceisnotrightormoralinacivilizedsociety,isevil-minded,immatureviciousorharmful,issexistordiscriminatory,orculturallyunacceptable.

Example:It’snotnecessarytoabolishdeathpenaltyinChinabecausethepopulationofChinaissolarge.However,it’sevil!AttacksOnevidence27Atypicalevidence

theevidenceisnottypicaltoprovetheclaim

Example:Anadforamiracledietofferstestimonialsasproof,butfailstoprovideacontrolledclinicalstudytoprovethedietreallyworks.AttacksOnevidence28WhatOpposingArgumentsCanbeAttacked

HowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaims29Hastygeneralizations

Arrivingataconclusionwithoutenoughevidence.

Example:LiHuaandWangPing,whoaretwoAsian-Americanstudents,dowellinmath,soallAsian-Americanstudentsarebetterinmath.AttacksOnreasoningBandwagonThinking

Claimingthatmostpeopleagreesoitmustberight.

Example:

It’swidelyacceptedthatFrenchpeoplearemoreromantic,soFrenchmustberomantic.

AttacksOnreasoning31Singlecause-effect

Claimingthatonlyoneeventcausedanother.

Example:WhenIsatdownatthecomputeritstoppedworking,soImusthavedonesomethingwrong.AttacksOnreasoning32Noconnection

Thecausedoesnotrelatetotheeffect.

Example:Let’snottakeXiaoJingtengonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.AttacksOnreasoning33Either/Or

Suggestingonlytwoalternativeswhiletheissuemaybemuchmorecomplex.

Example:

Bush:“eitheryou’reforAmericaoryou’refortheterrorists”AttacksOnreasoning34CircularReasoning

Restatingindifferentwordswhathasalreadybeenstated.

Example:Xiaomingisabachelorbecausehehasn’tgotmarried.AttacksOnreasoning35FalseAnalogy

TheargumentassertsthatiffactsrelatingtoAandfactsrelatingtoBarealikeinsomeessentialrespects,theywillbealikeinanother,orother,essentialrespects.

Example:Studentsshouldbeallowedtolookattheirtextbooksduringexaminations.Afterall,surgeonshaveX-raystoguidethemduringanoperation,lawyershavebriefstoguidethemduringatrial,carpentershaveblueprintstoguidethemwhentheyarebuildingahouse.AttacksOnreasoning361.Sequentialattack（argument1-argument2-argument3）WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody372.PrimaryandsecondaryattacksThreetypesoforganizationHowweWritebodyrefutationofprimaryargument

refutationofsecondaryargument

383.ConcessiontypeattackAisfalseevenifAisTrueBisfalseEvenifA&BistrueCisfalseNottomentionthatA&BareallfalseThreetypesoforganizationWritebodyHowweTomakethebodypartcoherentandconsistentRebuttalofAisnotnecessarilytobethefirst,butit’scriticaltofindoutthelogicalconnectioninthewholeoriginalarticletoberefutedVideoExamplesVideo1Video2WritebodyHowweThreetypesoforganization401.Theargumenttoberefutedanditsrelationshiptothecaseasawhole.HowweWritebodyExample:Indevelopinganeedforpricecontrols,theeffectofinflationhasbeeninjurioustothewelfareoftheAmericanlaborer.Now,ifthisweretrue,theaffirmativewouldindeedhaveastrongargument.WhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation412.Statehowyouwillrefutetheargument.FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebodyExample:However,itcanbedemonstratedthattheaffirmativehasreachedanerroneousconclusionbyneglectingthemostrelevantaspectsoftheUnitedStateseconomicpicture.423.Refutationwithsupportingevidence..Example:HastheUnitedStateslaborerbeenhurtbyinflation?Onthecontrary,accordingtotheSecretaryoftheTreasury,hisbuyingpowerhasgoneupfortypercentinthepasttwentyyears,andaccordingtoastudyconductedbythelabororganizationsthemselves(AFL-CIOreport),“Thelaborer,eventhoughpriceshavegoneup,stillisinapositiontobuymoreofthedesiredgoodsonthemarketthaneverbefore.”FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebody434.Theeffectoftherefutationandtransitiontocontinuedrefutation.Example:Thusweseethattheaffirmativeneedargument,anappealtothewelfareoflabor,isrefutedbythelaborleadersthemselves.Now,letusproceedtotheirotherneedargumentstoseeiftheyarerealorlargelyimaginary.FourstepsinrefutationHowweWritebody44Makethemeansofcommunication-language-asclearaspossible.

AvoidvaguetermsUsethevocabularyofdebatebyreferringtoissues,arguments,andevidence.HowweWritebodyWhatopposingargumentscanbeattackedThreetypesoforganizationFourstepsinrefutationLanguageofrefutation45【Avoid】Thepointhasbeenbroughtup.【Because】Vague.Callingeverythingapoint,whetheritisanissue,andargument,orevidence,isprobablythemostcommonlanguageerrorindebate.Byitselfitisvague;whenitisoveruseditleadstototalconfusion.【Useinstead】“Thecontentionofworkabilityhasbeenattackedwiththeargumentthat”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody46【Avoid】“Asourquoteshaveproved”【Because】Vague.Beconcretebymakingspecificreferences.【Useinstead】“Ontheotherhand,bothProfessorX,ofWhiteUniversity,andtheDirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationhaveproved”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Theysaid”or“Wesaid”【Because】Vagueandclumsy.【Useinstead】“Thefirstaffirmativespeakerasserted”or“MissSmith,inherfirstconstructivespeech”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Westandon”【Because】Clumsy.【Useinstead】“Oursupportofthiscontentionhasbeen”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebody【Avoid】“Whereistheirproof?”and“Wehaveofferedproof.”【Because】Clumsyanderroneous.Proofisoftenconfusedwithevidence.【Useinstead】“Whereisthesupportingevidencetoprove”and“Wehaveofferedevidencetosupport”LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebodyBonus!!!LanguageofrefutationHowweWritebodyTypicallanguageusedinrefutationAlthoughitiswidely/commonly/generallyheld/felt/agreed/acceptedthat...,itisunlikelytobetruethat...Althoughitiscommonlyheldthat

successwillbringpeoplemoneyandstatus,itisunlikelytobetruethatitwillbeadesirablegoalforanyone.Consideringthegreatstresstheyhavetolivewith,andtheirshorterlifespans,greaterloneliness,andrelativeincapacityforcommunityorloveitentails,itisconceivablethatnoteveryonefindsanenterpriserequiringsuchsacrificeisworthwhatitcosts.虽然大多数人认为成功能给人带来金钱和地位，但是每个人都渴望成功却不一定是事实。想一想为了成功所要承受的紧张压力，寿命的可能缩短，巨大的孤独，不能有常人的感情交流和爱情。可以想象，不是所有的人都认为为追求一个目标付出这么多的牺牲是值得的ItisPerhaps/Probably/maybe/verytruethat...,butonevital/critical/essentialpoint/factisbeingleftoutofourconsciousness/analysis/considerationItisprobablytruethatinstitutingsanctionsmaysignificantlyreducethefrequencyof"wrong"speechesoncampus,butonevitalpointisbeingleftoutofourthinking:thesemeasuresposeaseriousthreattotheveryideaoftheuniversityandthespiritofacademicfreedom.采取制裁措施可能会显著地减少校园的“错误”言论，但是有一点我们没有考虑进去：这些措施对大学的本身宗旨以及学术自由精神构成了威胁。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationAtfirstthought/glance,/Onthesurface,Onthefaceofit,it/thismayseema(n)sound/attractive/palatable/goodidea/suggestion/possibility/solutionbutonsecondthoughts/oncloseexamination/consideringitindetail/carefullyweighingitinthebalanceI/wefind....Onthesurface,thecommentsmadebymenaboutwomen'sabilitiesseemreasonable.Butoncloseexamination,thecommentsrevealtherealcontemptthatmenfeelforwomenandthebasichostilitythatmenhavetowardwomen.

表面上，男人对妇女的能力所作的评论似乎有点道理，但仔细检查一下，这个评论反映了男人对妇女的真正蔑视和对妇女的态度基本上是对立的。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationSomepeopleargue/claimthat....Butmoreoftenthannot,theopposite/reverseis/usually/seemstobethecase/trueSomepeoplesuggestthatamanagerorahighexecutivecanspeakwellandlogicallybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Thatisputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Moreoftenthannot,quitethereverseistrue.Itishisskillinwordsthathelpshimtogethisjob.Thatis,ifyouconsciouslyincreaseyourvocabularyyouwillunconsciouslyraiseyourselftoamoreimportantstationinlife.Ofcourse,thenewandhigherpositionyouhavewonwill,inturn,giveyouabetteropportunityforfurtherenrichingyourlanguage.Itisabeautifulandsuccessfulcycle.

有的人说一个经理或一个高级管理人员之所以口才好，讲话有逻辑是因为他的职位给他创造了这样的条件。这就有点本末倒置了。许多情况下，事实正好相反。他的词语能力正好帮助他获得了他的这个职位。也就是说如果你注意扩大你的词汇，你就会在无意中提高生活中的地位。当然你得到的一个新的更重要的职位会反过来为你进一步丰富你的语言创造好的条件。这是一个良性的成功的循环。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationHowtowriteIntroductionHowtowriteBodyHowtowriteConclusionHowwewriteRefutationHowtowriteconclusion4.Statisticalfindings:datashowinghowmuch,howmany,orhowoften—canbeconvincing.5.Personalexperiencesorobservations:Sometimestheycandeliveranargumentativemessagemoreforcefullythananyotherkindofevidence.Personalexperienceusuallyreinforcesbutdoesnotreplaceotherkindsofevidences.HowtoendRestartyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongHowtowriteconclusion

RestateyourthesisindifferentwaysLookintothefutureMakefunofyouropponentsSummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongTipsforYourEssayDon'tmakeupevidenceCiteyoursourcesMakeanoutlineAvoidemotionallanguageKnowthedifferencebetweenalogicalconclusionandanemotionalpointofviewWhatour

customerssayWhatHowExampleToomuchConcepts!!!Istrike!PPTAsampleessay…soThenextoneis61Nature

examineswhetherandhowanathlete'sperformancehistoryandthelimitsofhumanphysiologycouldbeusedtocatchdopers.sampleessayYe’sperformancewasanomalous(异常)withanimprovementabout7seconds(6.72s).Acleandrugtestduringcompetitioncouldnotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping(兴奋剂).Performancecouldbeusedtonabdopers.Anathletewillbedisciplinedsimplyforperformingtoowell.OUTLINEOFREFUTATIONIntroductionBody1.Refute:thedataof“7seconds”2.Refute:“anomalous”improvement3.Refute:compareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’s4.Refute:anotherexampleofcherry-picking5.Refute:adrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping6.Refute:Callawayfailedtomentionout-of-competitiondrugtestConclusionIntroductionpart

FROMLAIJIANG,DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofPennsylvania

Itisashametosee

Nature

—whichnearlyallscientists,includingmyself,regardasoneofthemostprestigiousandinfluentialphysical-sciencemagazines—publishathinlyveiledbiasedarticlelikethis.Granted,thisisnotapeer-reviewedscientificarticleanddidnotgothroughthescrutinyofpickingreferees.Buttoserveasachannelforthegeneralpopulacetobeintouchwithandappreciatescience,theauthorsandeditorsshouldatleastpresentthereaderswithfactswithinthepropercontext,whichtheyblatantlyfailedtodo.Background/HookBodypart

First,toidentifyYe’sperformanceincrease,EwenCallawaycomparedherOlympic400-metreIMtimewithherperformanceattheWorldChampionshipsin2011(4:28.43and4:35.15,respectively)andconcludedthatshehadan“anomalous”improvementofaround7seconds(6.72s).Infact,herpreviouspersonalbestwas4:33.79atthe

AsianGamesin2010.Thisleadstoanimprovementof5.38seconds.Inasportingeventinwhich0.1scanbethedifferencebetweenthegoldandsilvermedal,Iseenoreasonfor5.38stobetreatedas7s.

ReviewthewrongfactsListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep1Bodypart

Second,aspreviouslypointedout,Yeisonly16yearsoldandherbodyisstilldeveloping.Betteringoneselfby5secondsovertwoyearsmayseemimpossibleforanadultswimmer,butitcertainlyhappensamongyoungsters.

AninterviewwithAustraliangoldmedallistIanThorperevealedthathis400-metrefreestyletimeimprovedby5secondsbetweentheagesof15and16.Forregularpeople,includingCallaway,itmaybehardtoimaginewhataneliteswimmercanachieveasheorshematuresandundergoesscientificandpersistenttraining.

Butjumpingtotheconclusionthatitis“anomalous”basedon‘Ohthat’ssotoughIcannotimagineitisreal’ishardlysound.ListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep2BodypartThird,tocompareRyanLochte’slast50metrestoYe’sisatextbookexampleof‘cherry-picking’yourdata.Yes,LochtewasslowerthanYeinthelast50metres,butLochtehadahugeleadinthefirst300metres,sohechosenottopushhimselftoohardandtoconservehisenergyforlater.Ye,ontheotherhand,wastrailingbehindafterthefirst300metresandreliedonfreestyle,inwhichshehasanedge,towintherace.

Failingtomentionthisstrategicdifference,aswellasthefactthatLochteis23.25secondsfaster(4:05.18)thanYeoverall,createstheillusionthatawomanswamfasterthanthebestmaninthesamesport,whichsoundsimpossible.Puttingasidethegenderargument,Ibelievethisisstillaleadingquestionthatimpliestothereaderthatthereissomethingfishygoingon.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep3BodypartFourthisanotherexampleofcherry-picking.Inthesameevent,therearefourmaleswimmerswhoswamfasterthanbothLochter(29.10s)andYe(28.93s)inthefinal50metres:KosukeHagino(28.52s),MichaelPhelps(28.44s),YuyaHorihata(27.87s)andThomasFraser-Holmes(28.35s).Asitturnsout,ifwearejusttalkingaboutthelast50metresina400-metreIM,LochterisnottheexampleIwouldhaveusedifIweretheauthor.WhatkindofscientificrigorousnessisCallawaytryingtodemonstratehere?IsitlogicalthatifLochteristhechampion,weshouldassumethatheleadsineverysplit?Thatwouldbeaterriblewaytoteachthepublichowscienceworks.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponents’casep4BodypartFifthistheissueIopposethemost