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1.Word:Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.(1)aminimalfreeformofalanguage(2)asoundunity(3)aunitofmeaning(4)aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentence2.vocabulary:(1)Totalnumberofthewordsinalanguage(2)Wordsusedinaparticularhistoricalperiod(3)Allthewordsofadialect,abook,adiscipline...3.Thebasicwordstock:isthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.4.Terminology:consistsoftechnicaltermsusedinparticulardisciplinesandacademicareasasinmedicine、inmathematics、inmusic、ineducation.5.Jargon:referstothespecializedvocabulariesbywhichmembersofparticulararts,sciences,tradesandprofessionscommunicateamongthemselves6.Slang:belongstothesub-standardlanguage,acategorythatseemstostandbetweenthestandardgeneralwordsincludinginformalonesavailabletoeveryoneandin-groupwordslikecant,jargon,andargot7.Contentwords:denoteclearnotionsandthusareknownasnotionalwords.Theyincludenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsandnumerals8.Functionalwords:donothavenotionsoftheirown.Therefore,theyarealsocalledemptywords.Astheirchieffunctionistoexpresstherelationbetweennotions,therelationbetweenwordsaswellasbetweensentences9.borrowedwords:arewordstakenoverfromforeignlanguages,knownasborrowedwordsorloanwordsorborrowingsinsimpleterms10.Denizens:arewordsborrowedearlyinthepastandnowwellassimilatedintotheEnglishlanguage.11.Aliens:areborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling12.Translation-loans:arewordsandexpressionsformedfromtheexistingmaterialintheEnglishlanguagebutmodelledonthepatternstakenfromanotherlanguage.13.Semantic-loans:Wordsofthiscategoryarenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform.Buttheirmeaningsareborrowed14.Creation:referstotheformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelyroots,affixesandotherelements15.Semanticchange:meansanoldformwhichtakesonanewmeaningtomeetthenewneed16.morpheme:is'thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords'17.monomorphemicwords:coincidewithwordsastheycanstandbythemselvesandfunctionfreelyinasentence18.allomorphs:arealternativemorphsrealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword19.FreeMorphemes自由词素:havecompletemeaninginthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself.(whichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree).20.BoundMorphemes(粘着语素):Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.Theyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords.Boundmorphemesarechieflyfoundinderivedwords.21.Affixes:areformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction22.affixescanbeputintotwogroups:1)Inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀):affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.2)Derivationalaffixes(派生词缀):derivationalaffixesareaffixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.23.Aroot:isthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.Intermsofderivationalandinflectionalmorphology,a'rootisthatpartofawordformthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved'.Astem:canbedefinedasaformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.24.Affixation:isgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationalaffixestostems.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,fornewwordscreatedinthiswayarederivedfromoldforms.Thewordsformedinthiswayarecalledderivatives25.affixationfallsintotwosubclasses:prefixationandsuffixation.(1)Prefixation:istheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestostems.Prefixesdonotgenerallychangetheword-classofthestembutonlymodifyitsmeaning.(2)Suffixation:istheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestostems.Unlikeprefixeswhichprimarilychangethemeaningofthestem,suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangethegrammaticalfunctionofstems.26.Compounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.alsocalledcomposition.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.27.Conversion:istheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass28.Blending:istheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledblendsorpormanteauwords29.clippingistoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.30.Acronymy:istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledinitialismsoracronyms,dependingonthepronunciationofthewords.31.Initialisms:arewordspronouncedletterbyletter.IncaseslikeA.D.(AnnoDomini=intheyearafterthebirthofJesusChrist),B.C.(BeforeChrist)andC.O.D.(cashondelivery)32.Acronyms:arewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword,forexampleradar(radiodetectingandranging),andWAVES(WomenAppointedforVoluntaryEmergencyService),etc33.Back-formation:isconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.Asweknow,suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestobases,andback-formation:istheformationofnewwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.34.Reference(所指):Itistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld.Thereferenceofawordisarbitraryandconventional.Itisakindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific35.Concept(概念):whichisbeyondlanguage,istheresultofhumancognition(认识),reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Meaningandconcept:Theyarebothrelateddirectlytoreferentsandarenotionsofthewordsbutbelongtodifferentcategories.Meaningsoisrestrictedtolanguageuse.36.Sense:Itdenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.‘Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.37.SenseandReference:Unlikereference,'sense'denotestherelationshipsinsidethelanguage.'Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.'(ibid)Sincethesenseofanexpressionisnotathing,itisoftendifficulttosaywhatsortofidentityitis.Itisalsoanabstraction.Everywordthathasmeaninghassense(noteverywordhasreference).38.Motivation(动机):accountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning.Asweknow,therelationshipbetweentheword-formandmeaningisconventionalandarbitrary,andmostwordscanbesaidtobenon-motivated.39.Onomatopoeicmotivation(象声动机):wordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning,forthesewordswerecreatesbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.Knowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaning.40.Morphologicalmotivation(词素动机):Compoundsandderivedwordsaremulti-morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanyarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombines.E.g.:airmail41.Semanticmotivation(语义动机):referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.Itexplainstheconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesenseoftheword.E.g:thefootofthemountain(foot)42.Etymologicalmotivation(语源动机):Themeaningsofmanywordsoftenrelatedirectlytotheirorigins.Inotherwordsthehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningoftheword.E.g:pen-feather43.GrammaticalMeaning(语法意义):referstothatpartofthemeaningofthewordwhichindicatesgrammaticalconceptorrelationshipssuchaspartofspeechofwords,singularandpluralmeaningofnouns,tensemeaningofverbsandtheirinflectionalforms.Grammaticalmeaningofawordbecomesimportantonlywhenitisusedinactualcontext.44.Lexicalmeaningitselfhastwocomponents:conceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning.45.Conceptualmeaning(概念意义):alsoknownasdenotativemeaning(外延意义)isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword-meaning46.Associativemeaning(关联意义):isthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaning.47.Connotative(内涵意义):Incontrasttodenotativemeaning,overtonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning,traditionallyknownasconnotations.48.Stylistic(文体意义):Apartfromtheirconceptualmeanings,manywordshavestylisticfeatures,whichmakethemappropriatefordifferentcontexts.49.Affective(感情意义):indicatesthespeaker’sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.50.Collocative(搭配意义):Thismeaningconsistsoftheassociationsawordacquiresinitscollocation.Inotherwords,itisthepartoftheword-meaningsuggestedbythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.51.Awordwhichisrelatedtootherwordsisrelatedtotheminsense,hencesenserelations52.Polysemy:thesamesymbolmustbeusedtoexpressmoremeanings53.diachronicapproach(历时措施):fromthediachronicpointofview,polysemyisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.Firstmeaningistheprimarymeaning,thelatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeanings54.synchronicapproach(共时措施):synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinacertainhistoricalperiodoftime55.radiation(辐射型):isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerayes(e.g:face,neck)56.concatenation(连锁型):meaning'linkingtogether',isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovegraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermhadatthebeginning.(e.g:treacle)57.区别:Unlikeradiationwhereeachofthederivedmeaningsisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning,concatenationdescribesaprocesswhereeachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.Thoughthelatestsensecanbetracedbacktotheoriginal,thereisnodirectconnectioninbetween.联络:Theyarecloselyrelated,beingdifferentstagesofthedevelopmentleadingtopolysemy.Generally,radiationprecedesconcatenation.Inmanycases,thetwoprocessesworktogether,complementingeachother.58.Homonymy(同音异义关系):wordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.59.Perfecthomonyms(完全同音同形异义词):wordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.Homographs(同形异义词):wordsidenticalonlyinspelling,butdifferentinsoundandmeaning.Homophones(同音异义词):wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.(最多最常见)60.DifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemants(同音同形异义词和多义词旳区别):Perfecthomonymsandpolysemantsarefullyidenticalwithregardtospellingandpronunciation.Thiscreatestheproblemofdifferentiation.1)Thefundamentaldifferencebetweenhomonymsandpolysemantsliesinthefactthattheformerreferstodifferentwordswhichhappentosharethesameformandthelatteristheoneandsamewordwhichhasseveraldistinguishablemeanings.2)Oneimportantcriterionistoseetheiretymology,i.e.homonymsarefromdifferentsourceswhereasapolysemantisfromthesamesourcewhichhasacquireddifferentmeaningsinthecourseofdevelopment.3)Thesecondprincipalconsiderationissemanticrelatedness.Thevariousmeaningsofapolysemantarecorrelatedandconnectedtoonecentralmeaningtoagreaterorlesserdegree,e.g.neck4)meaningsofdifferenthomonymshavenothingtodowithoneanother.Indictionaries,apolysemanthasitsmeaningsalllistedunderoneheadwordwhereashomonymsarelistedasseparateentries.61.Synonymy(同义关系):oneoftwoormorewordsintheEnglishlanguagewhichhavethesameorverynearlythesameessentialmeaning.62.Antonymy(反义关系):itisconcernedwithsemanticopposition.Antonymscanbedefinedaswordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.63.Hyponymy(上下义关系):(1)Hyponymydealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.Themeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralword.64.SemanticField(语义场):anintegratedsystemoflexemesinterrelatedinsense.wordsoflanguagecanbeclassifiedintosemanticallyrelatedsetsorfields65.Extension/generalization(词义旳扩大):,isthenamegiventothewideningofmeaningwhichsomewordsundergo.Itisaprocessbywhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralized.66.Narrowing/specialization(词义旳缩小):istheoppositeofwideningmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.Inotherwords,awordwhichusedtohaveamoregeneralsensebecomesrestrictedinitsapplicationandconveysaspecialmeaninginpresent-dayEnglish.67.Elevation/amelioration(词义旳升华):referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumble(粗陋旳)beginningstopositionsofimportance.68.Degradation/pejoration(词义旳降格):istheoppositeofsemanticelevation.Itisaprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordscometousedinderogatory(贬损旳)sense.69.Transfer(词义旳转移):Wordswhichwereusedtodesignate指明onethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer.Itisaprocessbywhichwordswereusedtodesignateonethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelse70.associatedtransfer:atermusedinrelationtochangesinwordmeaninginwhichthemeaningistransferredthroughassociation,e.gpursefor‘money’dishfor‘food’etc71.Context:isusedindifferentsenses.Inanarrowsense,itreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappears.Thisisknownaslinguisticcontext,whichmaycoveraparagraph,awholechapterandeventheentirebook.Inabroadsense,itincludesthephysicalsituationaswell.Thisiscalledextra-linguisticornon-linguisticcontext,whichembracesthepeople,time,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.72.Lexicalcontext(词汇语境):referstothewordthatoccurstogetherwiththewordinquestion.73.Grammaticalcontext(语法语境):refersthesituationwhenthemeaningofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs.74.contextualclues上下文线索:Contextmayproveextremelyvaluableinguessingthemeaningsofnewwords.Inmanycases,whenanewword(thoughttobe)appearsforthefirsttime,theauthorgenerallymanagestogivehintswhichmighthelpthereaderstograsptheconceptorunderstandtheidea.75.Idioms(习语旳定义):Strictlyspeaking,idiomsareexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteral
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