书面英语中语义的词汇衔接

CET4LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish&ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglish书面英语中语义的词汇衔接LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish一个段落，乃至一篇文章的内容除了在语义上应该保持连贯以外，还需要做到语义上的衔接(cohesion)。连贯好比是钢筋混凝土浇铸成的楼房主体，人们看不出其组成成分。衔接好比是砖与砖之间的砂浆，我们能看出它把砖连接在一起的情形。连贯是目的，衔接是手段。连贯避免逻辑混乱，衔接是消除前言不搭后语(incohesion)、繁复啰嗦(superfluous)、词语贫乏(flatormonotonous)和赘言(redundant)的有效方法。请看下面三篇文章：Diligenceisoneoftheessentialsforsuccess.Ifaworkerwantstomakesomeachievementsbytrade,hemustdevotehimselftohisjobandworkhard.PracticingEnglish,forexample,needsmuchtimeandyourenergy.SoifyouwanttospeakwellinEnglish,youmustbediligent…这个段落的主题句写得很好，紧接着的第一层支撑句也没问题，但是第二层支撑句的意思由于突如其来了一个第二人称代词“you”就和第一层意思有些脱节，衔接不上，前言不搭后语。如果要把“学生”和“工人”进行类比，第三句里需要出现与上文语义相衔接的词语。比如，我们把第三句和后面的句子改写成“Likeaworker,astudentalsoneedstomakeeffortsinhisstudies.Forexample,practicingoralEnglishneedshismuchtimeandenergy.Ifhekeepspracticeeveryday,hewillbesuretospeakEnglishwell.”这样第三句—ikeaworker”里的“aworker”和第二句的“aworker”，“makeefforts”和“workhard”形成了照应;第四句的“practice”和第三句中的“practicing”，“much…energy”和“makeefforts”构成了衔接关系，整个语段的意思就连贯了。(B)Greatchangeshavetakenplaceinmyoldschool.Pupilsstudyinspaciousandbrightclassrooms.Thevillages,whooncepreventedtheirchildrenfromgoingtoschool,nowliketosendtheirchildrentothenewschool.Thepupilsareveryhappytolistentotheirteacherseveryday.本段第三句中的“children”和“thenewschool"，第四句中的“pupils”均表现出作者词汇的贫乏单调和语义的繁冗。如果把第三句中的“children”改成“sonsanddaughters”,把“thenewschool”改为“it”，把第四句的“pupils”改为“boysandgirls”语言就较为顺畅了。解决上述问题，要靠用于衔接的照应(anaphora)手段。照应可以分为前照应(anaphoricreference)和后照应(cataphoricreference),或称回指和下指。例如：TheteacherIlikebestisJohn,anAmericanteacher.我们用得最多的是词汇衔接(lexicalcohesion)和指称衔接(referentialcohesion),本节先讨论词汇衔接。词汇衔接主要通过替代(substitution)来实现。在连贯的语篇(discourse)——任何意义完整的句群一一中，如果前述内容在下文中再次或多次提及时，我们总是采取替代的方式予以照应。就是说，改变一种说法来体现语义的衔接，否则就会过于繁冗。例如：YesterdayMaryboughtthreedresses.Sheboughtayellowdress,agreendress,andawhitedress.在这个语段中，“dress”一共用了四次，很繁冗。若做如下改动，就好多了：YesterdayMaryboughtthreegarments:ayellowdress,agreenskirt,andawhiteshirt.在书面表达中，我们经常用到的替代方式有：下义关系、同义关系、借代、提喻、重复关系等。1.下义关系下义关系(hyponym)是指词与词之间的一种语义关系，其中一个或多个词的意义包含在另一个词的意义之内。例如：cat是animal的下义词，chair是furniture的下义词，各对之间的关系就是下义关系。在写作时，人们可以利用下义关系使文章内容上下照应。同时，还可以使文章生动、活泼、有趣。例如：Model1AnEnjoymentOntheNewYear’sEveourfamilymembersgottogethertoenjoytheeveningpartycomingfromCCTV.Allmyfamilyburstintolaughterwhilewatchingashortcomicplay.TheplaywaschieflyperformedbyZhaoLirong,acomicactressenjoyinganation-widereputation.WhensheposedherselfasaChineseboxer,wealllaughed.Myyoungersistergiggled.Mybrothergrinned.My/6CET4LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish&ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglishsister-in-lawleeredwithasneer.Imyselfguffawed,“Whatafun!”Mylittlenephewchortledverymuch.Mymothersmiledfromeartoear.Evenmyfathergaveachucklethoughheusuallylooksgraveinhisappearanceasajudge.Weallenjoyedourselvesverymuchthroughouttheparty.Note:grin（露齿而笑），leerwithasneer（斜眼冷笑），guffaw（大笑着说），chortle（哈哈大笑），chuckle（窃笑）。.同义关系两个意义相同（same/identical）或相近（similar）的词是同义词（synonym）,它们之间的关系成为同义关系（synonym）。但是，这种关系是有条件的，即只有在某些语境或上下文中，两者才同义。例如：Imustbuy/getsomemorestampsatthepostoffice.Igot/gainedmorestampsfrommyfatherasmybirthdaypresent.Model2HowtoOvercometheFearofDeathSomeoldpeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeath.Theyareterriblywrong.Thebestwaytoovercomeit-sothatatleastitseemstome—istomakeyourinterestgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal.Thus,thewallsofselfwillrecedebitbybit,andyourlifewillbecomeincreasinglymergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldblikeariver-smallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastbouldersandoverwaterfalls.Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksmoveback,thewatersfloemorequietly,andintheendwithoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Theman,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue.Andif,withthedecayofvitality,wearinessincreases,thethoughtofrestwillbenotunwelcome.Ishouldwishtodiewhilestillatwork,knowingthatotherswillcarryonwhatIcannolongerdo..Death,likebirth,isanaturalthingwhichnobodycanescapefrom.Ifmanalltakesanactiveattitudetowardit,hewillbravelygotomeetitwhenhislifeendsupwithfulfillment.（根据NewConceptEnglish第四册短文改写）这篇文章里有四组同义词：death，die，rest（长眠）和endup；recede和moveback；existence和being；interest和caresfor。它们互相照应，使全文语义衔接，集中构成一种类比（analogy）推理方式。.重复关系有时我们在作文里需要重复某些关键词语，以便使上下文畅通，达到语义衔接的目的。这种关系称为重复关系（repetition）。TheclosenessofStanfordtoSanFrancisco,acitythirty-twomilestothenorth,givestheuniversityadecidedlycosmopolitanflavor.Equallycosmopolitanisthestudentbody.StudentsenrollprincipallyfromthewesternUnitedStates.ButmostofthefiftystatessendstudentstoStanford,andmanyforeignstudentsstudyhere,aswell.（Bander:AmericanEnglishRhetoric）但是，重复具有双重性（dualism）。它除了有表现力以外，还有非表现力的一面。如果使用不当，就会造成累赘。PerhapsthemostinterestingpersonIhaveevermetisaninterestingItalianprofessorofphilosophywhoteachescoursesattheUniversityofPisainItaly.AlthoughIlastmetthismaneightyearsago,Ihavenotforgottenoverthe10ngyearshisspecialqualities.（Bander:AmericanEnglishRhetoric）4.借代关系借代（metonymy）是一种修辞格（figureofspeech），它是用一种事物的名称代替另一种相关事物的修辞手段。我们可以用容器代替内容（Thekettleisboiling），以人或事物的明显标志代替该人或事物本身（Theblueeyeswalkedintotheoffice），以工具代表使用工具的人（Thepenismightierthansword），以作者名代替作品（HaveyoueverreadShakespeare?），用具体事物代替抽象概念等。例如：Pablolookeddown.“Everyonehastodowhathecandoaccordingtohowitcanbetrulydone,“hesaid,“IlivehereandoperatebeyondSegovia.Ifyoumakeadisturbancehere,wewillbehuntedoutoftheseCET4LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish&ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglishmountains.Itisonlybydoingnothingherethatweareabletoliveinthesemountains.Itistheprincipleofthefox.”“Yes,”saidAnselmobitterly,“Itistheprincipleofthefoxwhenweneedthewolf.”“Iammorewolfthanthee,”Pablosaid.（ErnestHemingway:ForWhomtheBellTolls）这里，作者用狐狸代替狡猾的人或物，用狼代替凶狠的人或物。与借代连带的还有一种修辞格是提喻，或称举隅法（synecdoche）。它是以事物的局部表示整体，或以整体表示局部。例如：Iarrivedattheschooljustthreefeettallandfatlywrappedinmyscarves.Theplaygroundroaredlikearodeo,...Oldboots,raggedstockings,torntrousersandskirts,wentskatingandskiddingaround.Therabbleclosedin;Iwasenriched.（LaurieLee,转引自冯翠华《英语修辞大全》）在该段中，作者用孩子们的各种服饰来代替这些学生。请看下例：ThatflightbetweenAliandListonwasthemostsensationalheavyweightcontestsincetheDempsey-Tunneymatchof1926.书面语中语篇的指称衔接ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglish指称就是把写作时要表达的实体（entity）（即某一人物、事物、事件、活动、时间、地点等）准确无误地告诉读者采用的手段，否则就会造成误解、混乱或臃肿。例如，我们在谈及两个人的活动时写道：（A）LiHuahadsomethingtotalkwithWangQiang.Theformerenteredthelatter'sroom.AtthatmomentWangQiangwascarryingaboxandwasgoingtoputitsomewhere.HesaidtoLiHua,“Pleasesitdownandwaitaminute,letmeputitthere.Thenwewillhaveourchat.”AfterWangputtheboxonacorner,theybegantheirtalk.TheNewEnglanderswerebetterpreparedtomeethardship.NotonlyweretheNewEnglander,smigrationslongerandbetterorganizedthanthoseoftheindividualtravelers,theindividualtravelersmadetheindividualtraveler,swaytotheChesopeakearea,buttheNewEnglander,stheologyhelpedmakeexplicablethetrialstheNewEnglandersfaced.（摘自胡壮麟《语篇的衔接与连贯》）这段文字对比了美国殖民初期新英格兰移民的不同情况。从语法上看这个语段没有错误，但是读起来令人费解，这是为什么呢？就是因为没有利用指称手段的缘故。其实，这个段落原本是NeilHarris等人写的AmericanHistory:1600tothePresent里的一段话，我们将其复原就好理解了：（B1）TheNewEnglanderswerebetterpreparedtomeethardship.NotonlyweretheirmigrationslongerandbetterorganizedthanthoseoftheindividualtravelerswhomadetheirwaytotheChesopeakearea,buttheirtheologyhelpedmakeexplicablethetrialstheyfaced.（摘自胡壮麟《语篇的衔接与连贯》）人称指称人称指称（personalreference）是人们使用做多的指称手段。我们在写作中首先要定位的是代言人/言念（voice）或视点（pointofview），即谁是文章中的发言人（speaker）或叙述者（narrator）。第一人称单数我们在讲述与自己经历或经验有关的事情的时候第一人称单数（thefirstpersonsingular）是最自然的视点。它可用于写自传（autobiography）、报纸和杂志专栏（magazineandnewspapercolumns）文章和记叙文等等。Model1AWalkintheRainAfterIgetupinthemorning,Iliketotakeawalkoutdoors.WhetheritisfineorrainyorCET4LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish&ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglishwindyIkeepdoingsoeveryday.EspeciallyIlovewalkingintherain.Onedayitwasrainingheavily.Dropbydropitfellonmyhead,onmyshoulders,onmyback,andonmyknees,butIwasinhighspirits.Alongthepath,Isawmanylittleredandyellowandwhiteflowersputtinguptheirheadstoabsorbtheirdrinks.Theyhadbeencompletelywashed.Theyappearedfreshandlively.Howlovelytheylooked!Imyselfwaswettotheskinaswell,butIfelthappyasiftherainweregladdeningmyheartandrefreshingmymind.BythenIforgotallmytroublesandunhappyincidents.Iwasaslivelyasthoseflowers.Indeed,walkingintherainisanenjoymenttome.Idonotknowwhy,butIjustlikeit.Perhaps,itisagoodremedyforme,andforanybodytocurethewitheringheart.第一人称复数当作者代表一部分观点相同的人对另一部分持同样观点人讲话时就可以用复数第一人称(thefirstpersonplural)“we”来写作。这一人称读起来亲切，能使读者感到自己似乎也和作者一样享有同等的学识、观点、声望等。所以，他多用于演讲稿和以团体口吻写得文章。Model2AnIncidentLastsummerwewentcamping.Inthenextmorningafterwearrivedatourdestination,everyonedidhisownjobassigned.PeterandJohnwenttofetchwaterfromawellnearby.Unfortunately,Peterfellintothewellbecauseofthemosses.ImmediatelyJohnranbacktocallusforhelp.WehadahardtimegettingPeteroutofthewellhehadfalleninto.First,wefashionedaropebylinkingourbeltstogether.ThenweloweredittoPetertellinghimtograsptheend.Afterhehadholdofbelt-rope,webegantopullhimslowly,inchbyinch,outofthewell.Duringhisascent,noonedaredspeakaword.Finally,wecouldgrasphisarms,andwithashoutofrelief,wepulledhimoutontothegrassybank.Afterawhile,weaskedhimhoehefelt.“Ifeltverywell,”hesaid,“becauseGodsaidtomeitisnottimeyoucametoseeme.”1.3第三人称第三人称(thethirdperson)往往被人们称为“无所不知的叙述者”或“全知观点”其实文章的代言人或故事的叙述者就是作者自己。他对自己所写的东西无所不知。MyMotherModel3Mymotherisakindandgentlewoman.Sheisalwaysverygentle.Shetakesgoodcareofherchildrenandkeepsthemallatschool.Ihavetwobrothersandtwosisters.Soshegetsfivechildreninall.Shegivesuseverycomfort.Weallloveherandshelovesusalso.Mymotherhastoomuchtodoinbringusup.Asourfamilyistoopoortokeepanurse,mymotherhasalwaystodomuchwork.Shegetsupveryearlyandsleepsverylateeveryday.Sheworkshard,yetwithoutcomplaining.Sheisalsoathriftyandindustriouswoman.Shesaveseverypennythatshecanandkeepseverythinginorder.Asshehasbeenbusyeversinceshewasyoung,shelooksolderthanshereallyis.Herfaceiswrinkled,herhairbecomessilverwhite,andsomeofherteethbecomemovable.Butsheworksashardasever.Oftenshesaystous,“Workwhileyouwork,playwhileyouplay.Ifyoudonotwork,youwillbecomelazyandofnousetosociety.”Whatapieceofgoodadvicethisis!Wemustbeworthitwellandalwayskeepitinourmind.(选自朱宝雄《实用英语写作》)1.4第二人称第二人称(thesecondperson)多用在书信体文章和指导性或教导性文章里。Model4AnIntroductiontotheUseofaPC“Usingacomputeriseasy.”Youhaveheardthatstatementbefore.Itisthekindofglibremarkthatmightmakeyouwishforanaddingmachineandballpointpeninsteadofacomputer.Personalcomputersarelogical.Theyfunctionaccordingtoverystrict,straightforwardrulesandguidelines.Allyouhavetodoislearntherules,andyoucantakechargeofthecomputeron4/6CET4LexicalCohesionofMeaninginWrittenEnglish&ReferentialCohesionofDiscourseinWrittenEnglishyourdesk.Luckily,theapplicationprogramswrittenforcomputersrecontinuallybecomingeasiertouse;thecombinationofPCDOSandWindows(twopiecesofsoftwarethatexplainedinthefollowingsection)makelearningtheruleseasierthanever.WithPCDOSandWindows,youcanaccessallthepowerofyourcomputer.Beforeyouputyourcomputertowork,however,youneedtounderstanditscomponents,andyouneedtoknowhowtheyworktogether.Thischapterdescribestherelationshipbetweenpersonalcomputerhardwareandtheoperatingsystem..指示指称作者以自身为参照物来定位所指的人或物在时间和空间上的远近关系就是指示指称(thedemonstratereference)o在英语中，指示指称词语主要有this/that,these/those,here/there,now/then。Model5MyBrother’sIdealMybrotherisafarmer.Hehasagreatambition.Hisidealistobecomeakingoffruits.Mybrotherplantedavarietyoffruittreesinthelastdecadeorso.Duringthelastsummervacationheledmetohisorchardinwhichthosetreesgavemeaneye-openingscene.Allthetreesgrewsowellthatamplefruitswerehangingheavilyonthem.Iaskedmybrotherhowheranhisorchard.Hesaidthatinthedeepautumnheprunedthem,inwinterheappliedfertilizertothem,andinspringandsummerhewateredthem——allthis,headded,gavehimmuchpleasure.Hetoldmethathehadmadeafurtherplantodevelophisorchard,butourfatherhadhisownplan.AfterIknewbothoftheirplansIsaidtomybrotherthatIpreferredhistoourfather’sinthatmybrothercouldachievemuchmorefruit.Mybrother’splanisthis:Hewantstoturnallthehillsaroundhisorchardintofruit-treeones.Myvillagersallsaidthatmybrotherisayoungmanwhosetshismindondoingsomethinguseful.Ithinkhewillbecertaintorealizehisideal..本体指称我们在前面范文中见到过的theformer,thelatter,以及其他形容词前加定冠词作名词用的形式，不定代词one(s),something,anyt