超级强化b-讲义lv1翻译

Themoleculesofcarbon❶ThemoleculesofcarbondioxideintheEarth’satmosphereaffecttheheatbalanceoftheEarthbyactingasaone-wayscreen.❷Althoughthesemoleculesallowradiationatvisiblewavelengths,wheremostoftheenergyofsunlightisconcentrated,topassthrough,theyabsorbsomeofthelonger-wavelength,infraredemissionsradiatedfromtheEarth’ssurface,radiationthatwouldotherwisebetransmittedbackintospace.❸FortheEarthtomaintainaconstantaveragetemperature,suchemissionsfromtheplanetmustbalance ingsolarradiation.❹Iftherewerenocarbondioxideintheatmosphere,heatwouldescapefromtheEarthmuchmoreeasily.❺Thesurfacetemperaturewouldbesomuchlowerthattheoceansmightbeasolidmassofice.❶地球大气层中的二氧化碳分子会作为一种单向热量过滤网(one-wayscreen)来影响地球上的热平衡。❷虽然二氧化碳分子允许光能量最集中的可见光通从地球发出的辐射能必须和辐射能相平衡。❹如果在大气中没有二氧化❶Today,however,thepotentialproblemistoomuchcarbondioxide.❷Theburningoffossilfuelsandtheclearingofforestshaveincreasedatmosphericcarbondioxidebyabout15percentinthelasthundredyears,andwecontinuetoaddcarbondioxidetotheatmosphere.❸Couldtheincreaseincarbondioxidecauseaglobalriseinaveragetemperature,andcouldsucharisehaveseriousconsequencesforhumansociety?❹Mathematicalmodelsthatallowustocalculatetheriseintemperatureasafunctionoftheincreaseindicatethattheanswerisprobablyyes.(fossilfuel)15%，而我们现气温升高，以及气温的升高是否会对人类社会产生严重呢？❹我们可以把❶Underpresentconditionsatemperatureof-18℃canbeobservedatanaltitudeof5to6kilometersabovetheEarth.❷Belowthisaltitude(calledtheradiatinglevel),thetemperatureincreasesbyabout6℃perkilometerapproachingtheEarth’ssurface,wheretheaveragetemperatureisabout15℃.❸Anincreaseintheamountofcarbondioxidemeansthattherearemoremoleculesofcarbondioxidetoabsorbinfraredradiation.❹Asthecapacityoftheatmospheretoabsorbinfraredradiationincreases,theradiatinglevelandthetemperatureofthesurfacemustrise.❶5-618℃（这个海拔以下叫做辐射高度。❷高度每下降1千米，气温上升约6℃，地表平均温度约为15摄氏度。❸而二氧化碳含量增加意味着有二氧化碳分子来吸收红外辐射能。❹随着大❶Onemathematicalmodelpredictsthatdoublingtheatmosphericcarbondioxidewouldraisetheglobalmeansurfacetemperatureby2.5℃.❷Thismodelassumesthattheatmosphere’srelativehumidityremainsconstantandthetemperaturedecreaseswithaltitudeatarateof6.5℃perkilometer.❸Theassumptionofconstantrelativehumidityisbecausewatervaporintheatmosphereisanotherefficientabsorberofradiationatinfraredwavelengths.❹Becausewarmaircanholdmoremoisturethancoolair,therelativehumiditywillbeconstantonlyiftheamountofwatervaporintheatmosphereincreasesasthetemperaturerises.❺Therefore,moreinfraredradiationwouldbeabsorbedandreradiatedbacktotheEarth’ssurface.❻Theresultantwarmingatthesurfacecouldbeexpectedtomeltsnowandice,reducingtheEarth’sreflectivity.❼Moresolarradiationwouldthenbeabsorbed,leadingtoafurtherincreaseintemperature.❶51.2.6.5中的水蒸气也会高效吸收红外波长的辐射。❹由于热空气比冷空气可以容纳更会保持不变。❺因此，红外辐射会被吸收然后被反射回地表。❻随之而来的地表变暖会熔化冰雪减少地球对热能的反射❼的辐射能会被吸收这导致了地表温度进一步的增加。AllofFrancoise❶AllofFrancoiseDuparc’ssurvivingpaintingsblendportraitureandgenre.❷Hersubjectsappeartobeacquaintanceswhomshehasaskedtopose;shehascapturedboththeirself-consciousnessandthespontaneityoftheireverydayactivities,thedepictionofwhichcharacterizesgenrepainting.❸Butgenrepainting,especiallywhenitportrayedmembersofthehumblestclasses,wasneverpopularineighteenth-centuryFrance.❹TheLeNainbrothersandGeorgesdeLaTour,whoalsochosesuchthemes,werelargelyignored.❺Theirpresenthighstandingisduetoadifferent,moredemocraticpoliticalclimateandtodifferentaestheticvalues:wenolongerrequireartiststoprovideidealimagesofhumanityforourmoraledificationbutratherregardsuchidealizationasafalsificationofthetruth.❻Duparcgivesnoimprovingmessageanddiscreetlyrefrainsfromjudginghersubjects.❼Inbrief,herworksneitherelevatenorinstruct.❽Thisrestraintlargelyexplainsherlackofpopularsuccessduringherlifetime,evenifhertalentdidnotgocompleyunrecognizedbyhereighteenth-centuryFrenchcontemporaries.，但是风俗画，特别是描绘最下层的作品，在18世纪的法国并没有受到人们的关注。❹选择了相同题材的LeNain兄弟以及GeorgesdeLaTour也们忽略了❺他们目前很高的地位是来源于一个截然不同的更为的政治环境以的启迪，而且把这种理想化处理看作对真理的错误解读。❻Duparc没有美化她的作品，而且谨慎地避免评价作品。❼简而言之作品既没有升华也没有。❽虽然天赋没有被18世纪的法国同时代的人完全忽视，但这种克制很大程度上解释了作品在她有生之年没有受青睐的原因。，PauleMarshall’sBrown❶PauleMarshall’sBrownGirl,Brownstones(1959)wasalandmarkinthedepictionoffemalecharactersinBlackAmericanliterature.❷MarshallavoidedtheoppressedandtragiceinwithWhitesocietythathadbeentypicalofthenovelsoftheearlytwentiethcentury.❸Likeherimmediatepredecessors,ZoraNealeHurstonandGwendolynBrooks,shefocusedhernovelonanordinaryBlackwoman’ssearchforidentitywithinthecontextofaBlackcommunity.❹ButMarshallextendedtheysisofBlackfemalecharactersbegunbyHurstonandBrooksbydepictinghere’sdevelopmentintermsoftherelationshipbetweenherBarbadianAmericanparents,andbyexploringhowmaleandfemalerolesweredefinedbytheirimmigrantculture,whichinturnwasinfluencedbythematerialismofWhiteAmerica.❺Byplacingcharacterswithinawiderculturalcontext,Marshallattackedracialandsexualstereotypesandpavedthewayforexplorationsofrace,class,andgenderinthenovelsofthe1970’s.人物的里程碑式作品。❷Marshall避开了20世纪初期小说中被的、悲惨的女主角与白人社会之间的典型。❸和前辈ZoraNealeHurston以及GwendolynBrooks一样小说聚焦在普通妇女在社会中寻求认同感的描写上。❹但是Marshall通过描绘女主人公和她从巴巴多斯岛到的随之被白人的物质主义影响延伸了Hurston和Brooks创造的对于黑了有关种族和的陈规陋习，并且为20世纪70年代的小说中种族、阶层以及BeforeLauraGilpin(1891-❶BeforeLauraGilpin(1891-1979),fewwomeninthehistoryofphotographyhadsodevotedthemselvestochroniclingthelandscape.❷Otherwomenhadphotographedtheland,butnonecanberegardedasalandscapephotographerwithasustainedbodyofworkingthephysicalterrain.❸AnneBrigmanoftenphotographedwoodlandsandcoastalcareas,buttheyweregenerallysettingsforherartfullyplacedsubjects.❹DorotheaLange’slandscapeswerealwaysconceivedofascounterpartstoherportraitsofruralwomen.❶Laurapin(18911979)(landpe)。❷其他女性的确也进行陆地摄影，但没有人能被看作高水平、实地描述自然环境作品的风景摄影师。❸nneBrigmn通常拍摄森林和海岸地区，但这些风景不过是她精心为拍摄对象而安排的。❹orotheaLange作品通常被认为是乡下妇女肖像的陪衬。❶AtthesametimethatGilpin’sinterestinlandscapeworkdistinguishedherfrommostotherwomenphotographers,herapproachtolandscapephotographysetherapartfrommenphotographerswho,likeGilpin, edthewesternUnitedStates.❷WesternAmericanlandscapephotographygrewoutofamaletradition,pioneeredbyphotographersattachedtoernmentandcommercialsurveyteamsthatwentwestinthe1860’sand1870’s.explorer-photographersedtheWestthattheiremployerswantedtosee:anexoticandmajesticlandshapedbyawesomenaturalforces,unpopulatedandreadyforAmericansettlement.❹Thenextgenerationofmalephotographers,representedbyAnselAdamsandEliotPorter,oftenworkedwithconservationistgroupsratherthan ernmentagenciesorcommercialcompanies,buttheynonethelesspthe“heroic”styleandmaintainedtheroleofrespectfuloutsiderpeeringinwithreverenceatafragilenaturalworld.❶在Gilpin对于风景作品的使她从其他女性摄影师中脱颖而出的同时陆地摄影方法和摄影师的方法大不相同，这些摄影师和in一样都在记录西部❷西部风景摄影是的传统由那些19世纪60、70年代去西部的和商业团队的摄影师发扬光大。❸这些探险摄影师记伟的土地，这片土地人烟稀少，等待人们开发。❹l和Eliotr为代表常常与环境保护主义团队合作而不是与机构或商业“崇高”敬畏的眼光凝视着脆弱的自然界。❶ForGilpin,bycontrast,thelandscapewasneitheranemptyvistaawaitinghumansettlementnorajewel-likesceneresistinghumanintrusion,butapeopledlandscapewitharichhistoryandtraditionofitsown,anenvironmentthatshapedandmoldedthelivesofitsinhabitants.❷HerphotographsoftheRioGrande,forexample,consistentlydepicttheriverintermsofitssignificancetohumanculture:asasourceofirrigationwater,asourceoffoodforlivestock,andaprovideroftownsites.❸AlsoinstructiveisGilpin’sgeneralavoidanceofextremeclose-upsofhernaturalsubjects:forher,emblematicdetailscouldneversuggesttheintricaciesoftheinterrelationshipbetweenpeopleandnaturethatmadethelandscapeacompellingsubject.❹Whileitisdangeroustodrawconclusionsabouta“feminine”wayofseeingfromtheworkofonewoman,itcannonethelessbearguedthatGilpin’suniqueapproachtolandscapephotographywas ogoustotheworkofmanywomenwriterswho,farmorethantheirmalecounterparts,describedthelandscapeintermsofitspotentialtosustainhumanlife.❶Gilpin来说，陆地景观既不是一片等待人类开发的、空洞的景色，也不是像珠宝般人类的景色，而是一片有着丰富历史和传统的陆她从始至终根据它对人类文化的重要性来描绘河流：一个作为灌溉水的、一避免用特写镜头来拍摄大自然的对象：对她来说，象征性的细节不能表达人得出用“女性化”的角度来去观察的结论是的但它可以展示Gilpin独特的风❶Gilpinneverspokeofherselfasaphotographerwithafeminine:sheeschewedanydiscussionofgenderasitrelatedtoherworkandmaintainedlittleinterestininterpretationsthatreliedontheconceptofa“woman’seye.”❷Thusitisironicthatherphotographicevocationofahistoricallandscapeshouldsoclearlypresentadistinctivelyfeminineapproachtolandscapephotography.何有关的讨论而且她对那些依靠“女人眼睛”的概念所做出的解释没有一Thesocialsciencesare❶Thesocialsciencesarelesslikelythanotherinlectualenterprisestogetcreditfortheirplishments.❷Arguably,thisissobecausethetheoriesandconceptualconstructsofthesocialsciencesareespeciallyaccessible:humanin ligenceapprehendstruthsabouthumanaffairswithparticularfacility.❸Andthediscoveriesofthesocialsciences,onceisolatedandlabeled,arequicklyabsorbedintoconventionalwisdom,whereupontheylosetheirdistinctivenessasscientificadvances.❶Thisunderappreciationofthesocialsciencescontrastsoddlywithwhatmanyseeastheiroverutilization.❷Gametheoryispressedintoserviceinstudiesofshiftinginternationalalliances.❸Evaluationresearchiscalledupontodemonstratesuccessesorfailuresofsocialprograms.❹Modelsfromeconomicsanddemography ethedefinitivetoolsforexaminingthefinancialbaseofsocialsecurity.❺Yetthisrushintopracticalapplicationsisitselfquiteunderstandable:publicpolicymustcontinuallybemade,andpolicymakersrightlyfeelthatevententativefindingsanduntestedtheoriesarebetterguidestodecision-makingthannofindingsandnotheoriesatall.Inarecentstudy,David❶Inarecentstudy,DavidCressyexaminestwocentralquestionsconcerningEnglishimmigrationtoNewEnglandinthe1630’s:whatkindsofpeopleimmigratedandwhy?❷Usingcontemporaryliteraryevidence,shiplists,andcustomsrecords,Cressyfindsthatmostadultimmigrantswereskilledinfarmingorcrafts,wereliterate,andwereorganizedinfamilies.❸Eachofthesecharacteristicssharplydistinguishesthe21,000peoplewholeftforNewEnglandinthe1630’sfrommostoftheapproxima y377,000EnglishpeoplewhohadimmigratingtoAmericaby1700.格兰的活动中两个关键问题：即什么样的人，以及他们为什么要？❷Cressy利用当代、海运和记录中，发现绝大多数成年者的。❸以上每一个特征鲜明地区分了17世纪30年代到新英格兰的21,000人和1700年左右到的约377,000英国人。❶Withrespecttotheirreasonsforimmigrating,Cressydoesnotdenythefrequentlynotedfactthatsomeoftheimmigrantsofthe1630’s,mostnotablytheorganizersandclergy,religiousexplanationsfordeparture,buthefindsthatsuchexplanationsusuallyassumedprimacyonlyinretrospect.❷Whenhemovestheprincipalactors,hefindsthatreligiousexplanationswerelessfrequentlyofferedandheconcludesthatmostpeopleimmigratedbecausetheywererecruitedbypromisesofmaterialimprovement.30年代中的一些人，特别是那些组织者和神职人员，提出了动机的宗The1960’switnessedtwo❶The1960’switnessedtwoprofoundsocialmovements:thecivilrightsmovementandthemovementingthewarinVietnam.❷Althoughtheyoverlappedintime,theywerelargelydistinct.❸Forabriefmomentin1967,however,itappearedthatthetwomovementsmightuniteundertheleadershipofMartinLutherKing,Jr.❶20世纪60年代了两场意义深远的：民权运动(civilrightsmovement)和反越战(warinVietnam)运动。❷尽管两者在时间上有，但它们仍有很大差异。❸1967年中的一段短暂时间里，这两项运动有可能都是由MartinLutherKing,Jr.的。❶King’sroleintheantiwarmovementappearstorequirelittleexplanation,sincehewastheforemostadvocateofnon ofhistime.❷ButKing’sstanceontheVietnamWarcannotbeexplainedintermsofpacifismalone.❸Afterall,hewassomethingofa totheantiwarmovement,eventhoughby1965hewasconvincedthattheroleoftheUnitedStatesinthewarwasindefensible.❹Whythenthetwoyearsthatpassedbeforehetranslatedhisprivatemisgivingsintopublicdissent?❺PerhapshebelievedthathecouldnotcriticizeAmericanforeignpolicywithoutendangeringthesupportforcivilrightsthathehadwonfromthefederal ❶作为他那个时代最杰出的非拥护者，King在反越战运动中的地位毋庸置疑。❷但King对越战的立场不能单靠和平主释。❸尽管早在1965年他就确信在越战中的角色是站不住脚的但毕竟他在一定程度上是反越战运动的后为他对于政策的批评会危及到他从那里赢得的对民权运动的支持。Nationalcharacterisnot❶Nationalcharacterisnotformallyconsideredbysocialscientistsindiscussingeconomicandsocialdevelopmenttoday.❷Theybelievethatpeopledifferandthatthesedifferencesshouldbetakenintoaccountsomehow,buttheyhaveasyetdiscoverednowaytoincludesuchvariablesintheirformalmodelsofeconomicandsocialdevelopment.❸Thedifficultyliesinthenatureofthedatathatsupposedlydefinedifferentnationalcharacters.❹Anthropologistsandothersareonmuchfirmergroundwhentheyattempttodescribetheculturalnormsforasmallhomogeneoustribeorvillagethanwhentheyundertaketheformidabletaskofdiscoveringthenormsthatexistinacomplexmodernnation-statecomposedofmanydisparategroups.❺Thesituationisfurthercomplicatedbythenatureofjudgmentsaboutcharacter,suchjudgmentsareoverlydependentonimpressionsandsince,furthermore,impressionsareusuallystatedinqualitativeterms,itisimpossibletomakeareliablecomparisonbetweenthenationalcharactersoftwocountries.❶如今当社会学家讨论经济和发展时，国民性格(Nationalcharacter)做的在于被用来定义不同国民性格的数据的性质❹当人类学家和其他学家Comparingdesignsinmusic❶Comparingdesignsinmusicwithvisualdesignsraisesinterestingquestions.❷Wearefamiliarwiththeeasytransfersoftermsdenotingqualitiesfromonefieldtoanother.❸Thebasicproblemcanbeputthisway:canmusicsoundthewayadesignlooks?❹Theelementsofmusicarenotthesameasthoseofpainting.❺Theymaybe ogous,buttobe isnottobeidentical.❻Isitpossible,then,forthesamebroadcharacteristicstoemergefromdifferentperceptualconditions?但类似不是相同。❻那么，有没有这样的可能，即相同的广泛特征在不同的❶Twofactsabouttherelationbetweenbroadcharacteristicsofaworkandtheirperceptualconditionsmustbek