第二章Morphology形态学

第二章Morphology形态学1.ThephonicmediumoflanguageSpeechandwritingSpeechismorebasicthanwriting.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysinventedtorecordspeech.Speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingineverydaycommunicationintermsoftheamountinformationconveyed.Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedwithonlythosesoundsthatareproducedbythehumanspeechorganinsofarastheyhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarelimitedinnumber.Thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticsstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage;andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.2.Phonetics2.1Whatisphonetics?Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.Thethreepointsofviewofphoneticstudy:Thespeaker’spointofviewThehearer’spointofviewThesoundwaves

Thethreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(Theproductionofspeechsounds)Auditoryphonetics(Theperceptionofspeechsounds)Acousticphonetics(Thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds)2.2

SpeechorgansThreeimportantareas:Thepharyngealcavity(throat)Theoralcavity(mouth)Thenasalcavity(nose)Larynx2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds__broadandnarrowtranscriptionsTowardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,bywhichtimearticulatoryphoneticswasbeginningtomakerealgreatprogressinthewesternworld,sotheyfeeltheneedforastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.In1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.Broadandnarrowtranscriptions[l]Leaf[li:f];feel[fi:l];build[bild];health[helθ]DiacriticsClear[l];dark[l][~];dental[l]Pit;spitNarrowtranscription:[]Broadtranscription://TheInternational

PhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

VowelsIntheproductionofavowel,theairstreamfromthelungsmeetwithnoobstructionConsonantsIntheproductionofaconsonant,theairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishConsonants

Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.By“mannerofarticulation”wemeanthemannerinwhichobstructioniscreated,andby“placeofarticulation”wemeantheplacewhereobstructioniscreated.Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.Stop(orPlosive)Oral&NasalFricative(Median)ApproximantLateral(Approximant)TrillTaporFlapAffricateMannerofarticulationStops:completeobstruction[P][b];[t][d]Fricatives:partialobstruction[f][v][s][z][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Nasals:[m],[n],[ŋ]Glides:[j][w]Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottalPlaceofarticulationBilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w]Labiodental:[f][v]Dental:[ð][θ]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][n]Palatal:Velar:[k][g][ŋ]Glottal:[h]2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowelsAsintheproductionofvowelstheairstreammeetsnoobstruction,theycannotbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorplaceofarticulationasconsonants.Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:ThepositionofthetongueFront,central,backTheopennessofthemouthClose,semi-close,semi-open,openTheshapeofthelipsRounded,unroundedThelengthofthevowelsLong,shortMonophthongs;diphthongsJones:AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:EnglishThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),andlip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[]highbacklaxroundedvowel[]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel3.Phonology3.1PhonologyandphoneticsBothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsound,buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,whilephonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophone

Phone:aphoneticunitorsegment;aphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;

Phoneme:aphonologicalunit,abstractandofdistinctivevalue;

Allophone:thedifferentphonesthatrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironment.

PhonePhonecanbedefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Phoneistherealizationofphoneme,itisconcrete,whilephonemeisabstract.Theword‘phoneme’simplyreferstoa‘unitofexplicitsoundcontrast’:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.PhonemeLanguagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspirated[ph]andunaspirated[p]isnotphonemic.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(//)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe‘broad’transcriptions.Allophone[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydis-tribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:[p][b]Complementarydistribution:Minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestringsKill,till,pillBeat,bit,bet,boot

3.4SomerulesinphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationrulesDeletionrule3.4.1SequentialrulesKbliblik,klib,kilb;lbki,ilbk,bkil,ilkbSequentialrule:TherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguageIfawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:(1)Thefirstphonememustbe/s/(2)Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/(3)Thethirdphonememustbe/1/or/r/or/w/.3.4.2AssimilationAssimilationrule:assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Reflectedinspelling:impossible,Illegal,irregular3.4.3DeletionruleTellsuswhenasoundisdeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresentedSign;paradigmSignature,paradigmaticDeletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.

3.5Suprasegmentals

Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Thephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:

3.5.1Stress

Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[│]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsy