2023年考研英语模拟真题与答案

1995年考研英语真题PartⅠStructureandVocabularySectionADirections:Beneatheachofthefollowingsentences,therearefourchoicesmarkedA,B,CandD.Choosetheonethatbestcompletesthesentence.MarkyouranswerontheANSWERSHEETbyblackeningthecorrespondingletterinthebrackets,(5points)1.Between1897and1919,atleast29motionpicturesinwhichartificialbeingswereportrayed.A.hadproducedB.havebeenproducedC.wouldhaveproducedD.hadbeenproduced2.Thereoughttobelessanxietyovertheperceivedriskofgettingcancerthaninthepublicmindtoday.A.existsB.existC.existingD.existed3.Theprofessorcanhardlyfindsufficientgroundshisargumentinfavorofthenewtheory.A.whichtobaseonB.onwhichtobaseC.tobaseonwhichD.whichtobebasedon4.anhelpbutbefascinatedbytheworldintowhichheistakenbythesciencefiction.A.EverybodyB.AnybodyC.SomebodyD.Nobody5.Howmanyofus,say,ameetingthatisirrelevanttouswouldbeinterestedinthediscussion?A.attendedB.attendingC.toattendD.haveattended6.Hydrogenisthefundamentalelementoftheuniverseitprovidesthebuildingblocksfromwhichtheotherelementsareproduced.A.sothatB.butthatC.inthatD.providedthat7.Wearetaughtthatabusinesslettershouldbewritteninaformalstyleinapersonalone.A.ratherthanB.otherthanC.betterthanD.lessthan8.isgenerallyaccepted,economicalgrowthisdeterminedbythesmoothdevelopmentofproduction.A.WhatB.ThatC.ItD.As9.Itisbelievedthattoday’spopmusiccanserveasacreativeforcestimulatingthethinkingofitslisteners.A.byB.withC.atD.on10.Justasthesoilisapartoftheearth,theatmosphere.A.asitisB.thesameisC.soisD.andsoisSectionB(11~20略：新大纲不再考察旳部分)SectionCDirections:Beneatheachofthefollowingsentences,therearefourchoicesmarkedA,B,CandD.Choosetheonethatbestcompletesthesentence.MarkyouranswerontheANSWERSHEETbyblackeningthecorrespondingletterinthebrackets.(10points)21.Inthatcountry,gueststendtofeeltheyarenothighlyiftheinvitationtoadinnerpartyisextendedonlythreeorfourdaysbeforethepartydate.A.admiredB.regardedC.expectedD.worshipped22.Aofthelongreportbythebudgetcommitteewassubmittedtothemayorforapproval.A.shorthandB.schemeC.scheduleD.sketch23.Amanhastomakeforhisoldagebyputtingasideenoughmoneytoliveonwhenold.Ａ.supplyB.assuranceC.provisionD.adjustment24.Thenewly-builtScienceBuildingseemsA.spaciousB.sophisticatedC.substantialD.steady25.Itiswell-knownthattheretiredworkersinourcountryarefreemedicalcare.A.entitledtoB.involvedinC.associatedwithD.assignedto26.Thefarmersweremoreanxiousforrainthanthepeopleinthecitybecausetheyhadmoreat.A.dangerB.stakeC.lossD.threat27.IfelttodeathbecauseIcouldmakenothingofthechairman’sspeech.Ａ.fatiguedB.tiredC.exhaustedD.bored28.Whentheenginewouldnotstart,themechanicinspectedallthepartstofindwhatwasat.A.wrongB.troubleC.faultD.difficulty29.Youradvicewouldbevaluabletohim,whoisatpresentathiswitsend.A.exceedinglyB.excessivelyC.extensivelyD.exclusively30.Hefailedtocarryoutsomeoftheprovisionsofthecontract,andnowhehastotheconsequences.A.answerforB.runintoC.abidebyD.stepinto31.Theriverisalreadyitsbanksbecauseofexcessiverainfall;andthecityisthreatenedwithalikelyflood.Ａ.ParalleltoB.levelinC.flatonD.flushwith32.Peoplethatverticalflighttransportswouldcarrymillionsofpassengersasdotheairlinersoftoday.Ａ.convincedB.anticipatedC.resolvedD.assured33.Inspiteofthewiderangeofreadingmaterialspeciallywrittenorforlanguagelearningpurposes,thereisyetnocomprehensivesystematicprogrammeforthereadingskills.Ａ.adaptedB.acknowledgedＣ.assembledD.appointed34.Themothersaidshewouldhersonwashingthedishesifhecouldfinishhisassignmentbeforesupper.Ａ.letdownB.letaloneC.letoffD.letout35.Weshouldalwayskeepinmindthatdecisionsoftenleadtobitterregrets.Ａ.urgentB.hastyC.instantD.prompt36.Johncomplainedtothebooksellerthattherewereseveralpagesinthedictionary.Ａ.missingB.losingC.droppingD.leaking37.Inthepast,mostforestershavebeenmen,buttoday,thenumberofwomenthisfieldisclimbing.Ａ.engagingB.devotingC.registeringD.pursuing38.Thesupervisordidn’thavetimesofartogointoit,buthegaveusanideaabouthisplan.Ａ.athandB.inturnC.inconclusionD.atlength39.Theirdemandforapayraisehasnottheslightestofbeingmet.A.prospectB.predictionC.prosperityD.permission40.It’susuallythecasethatpeopleseldombehaveinawaywheninafuriousstate.A.stableB.rationalC.legalC.crediblePartⅡClozeTestDirections:Foreachnumberedblankinthefollowingpassage,therearefourchoicesmarkedA,B,CandD.ChoosethebestoneandmarkyouranswerontheANSWERSHEETbyblackeningthecorrespondingletterinthebrackets.(10points)Sleepisdividedintoperiodsofso-calledREMsleep,characterizedbyrapideyemovementsanddreaming,andlongerperiodsofnon-REMsleep41kindofsleepisatallwellunderstood,butREMsleepis42toservesomerestorativefunctionofthebrain.ThepurposeofnonREMsleepisevenmore43.Thenewexperiments,suchasthose44forthefirsttimeatarecentmeetingoftheSocietyforSleepResearchinMinneapolis,suggestfascinatingexplanations45ofnon-REMsleep.Forexample,ithaslongbeenknownthattotalsleep46is100percentfataltorats,yet,47examinationofthedeadbodies,theanimalslookcompletelynormal.Aresearcherhasnow48themysteryofwhytheanimalsdie.Therats49bacterialinfectionsoftheblood,50theirimmunesystems—theselfprotectingmechanismagainstdisease—hadcrashed.41.Ａ.EitherB.NeitherＣ.EachＤ.Any42.A.intendedB.requiredC.assumedD.inferred43.A.subtleB.obviousC.mysteriousD.doubtful44.A.maintainedB.describedC.settledD.afforded45.A.inthelightB.byvirtueC.withtheexceptionD.forthepurpose46.A.reductionB.destructionC.deprivationD.restriction47.A.uponB.byC.throughD.with48.A.paidattentiontoB.caughtsightofC.laidemphasisonD.castlighton49.A.developB.produceC.stimulateD.induce50.A.ifB.asifC.onlyifD.ifonlyPartⅢReadingComprehensionDirections:Eachofthepassagesbelowisfollowedbysomequestions.ForeachquestiontherearefouranswersmarkedA,B,CandD.Readthepassagescarefullyandchoosethebestanswertoeachoftheques-tion.ThenmarkyouranswerontheANSWERSHEETbyblackeningthecorrespondingletterinthebrackets.(40points)Passage1MoneyspentonadvertisingismoneyspentaswellasanyIknowof.Itservesdirectlytoassistarapiddistributionofgoodsatreasonableprices,therebyestablishingafirmhomemarketandsomakingitpossibletoprovideforexportatcompetitiveprices.Bydrawingattentiontonewideasithelpsenormouslytoraisestandardsofliving.Byhelpingtoincreasedemanditensuresanincreasedneedforlabor,andisthereforeaneffectivewaytofightunemployment.Itlowersthecostsofmanyservices:withoutadvertisementsyourdailynewspaperwouldcostfourtimesasmuch,thepriceofyourtelevisionlicensewouldneedtobedoubled,andtravelbybusortubewouldcost20percentmore.Andperhapsmostimportantofall,advertisingprovidesaguaranteeofreasonablevalueintheproductsandservicesyoubuy.ApartfromthefactthattwentysevenActsofParliamentgovernthetermsofadvertising,noregularadvertiserdarepromoteaproductthatfailstoliveuptothepromiseofhisadvertisements.Hemightfoolsomepeopleforalittlewhilethroughmisleadingadvertising.Hewillnotdosoforlong,formercifullythepublichasthegoodsensenottobuytheinferiorarticlemorethanonce.Ifyouseeanarticleconsistentlyadvertised,itisthesurestproofIknowthatthearticledoeswhatisclaimedforit,andthatitrepresentsgoodvalue.AdvertisingdoesmoreforthematerialbenefitofthecommunitythananyotherforceIcanthinkof.ThereisonemorepointIfeelIoughttotouchon.RecentlyIheardawell-knowntelevisionpersonalitydeclarethathewasagainstadvertisingbecauseitpersuadesratherthaninforms.Hewasdrawingexcessivelyfinedistinctions.Ofcourseadvertisingseekstopersuade.Ifitsmessagewereconfinedmerelytoinformation—andthatinitselfwouldbedifficultifnotimpossibletoachieve,forevenadetailsuchasthechoiceofthecolorofashirtissubtlypersuasive—advertisingwouldbesoboringthatnoonewouldpayanyattention.Butperhapsthatiswhatthewellknowntelevisionpersonalitywants.51.Bythefirstsentenceofthepassagetheauthormeansthat.［A］heisfairlyfamiliarwiththecostofadvertising［B］everybodyknowswellthatadvertisingismoneyconsuming［C］advertisingcostsmoneylikeeverythingelse［D］itisworthwhiletospendmoneyonadvertising52.Inthepassage,whichofthefollowingisNOTincludedintheadvantagesofadvertising?.［A］Securinggreaterfame［B］Providingmorejobs［C］Enhancinglivingstandards［D］Reducingnewspapercost53.Theauthordeemsthatthewell-knownTVpersonalityis.［A］verypreciseinpassinghisjudgementonadvertising［B］interestedinnothingbutthebuyers’attention［C］correctintellingthedifferencebetweenpersuasionandinformation［D］obviouslypartialinhisviewsonadvertising54.Intheauthor’sopinion,..［A］advertisingcanseldombringmaterialbenefittomanbyprovidinginformation［B］advertisinginformspeopleofnewideasratherthanwinsthemover［C］thereisnothingwrongwithadvertisinginpersuadingthebuyer［D］thebuyerisnotinterestedingettinginformationfromanadvertisementPassage2Therearetwobasicwaystoseegrowth:oneasaproduct,theotherasaprocess.Peoplehavegenerallyviewedpersonalgrowthasanexternalresultorproductthatcaneasilybeidentifiedandmeasured.Theworkerwhogetsapromotion,thestudentwhosegradesimprove,theforeignerwholearnsanewlanguage—alltheseareexamplesofpeoplewhohavemeasurableresultstoshowfortheirefforts.Bycontrast,theprocessofpersonalgrowthismuchmoredifficulttodetermine,sincebydefinitionitisajourneyandnotthespecificsignpostsorlandmarksalongtheway.Theprocessisnottheroaditself,butrathertheattitudesandfeelingspeoplehave,theircautionorcourage,astheyencounternewexperiencesandunexpectedobstacles.Inthisprocess,thejourneyneverreallyends;therearealwaysnewwaystoexperiencetheworld,newideastotry,newchallengestoaccept.Inordertogrow,totravelnewroads,peopleneedtohaveawillingnesstotakerisks,toconfronttheunknown,andtoacceptthepossibilitythattheymay“fail”atfirst.Howweseeourselvesaswetryanewwayofbeingisessentialtoourabilitytogrow.Doweperceiveourselvesasquickandcurious?Ifso,thenwetendtotakemorechancesandtobemoreopentounfamiliarexperiences.Dowethinkwe’reshyandindecisive?Thenoursenseoftimiditycancauseustohesitate,tomoveslowly,andnottotakeastepuntilweknowthegroundissafe.Dowethinkwereslowtoadapttochangeorthatwe’renotsmartenoughtocopewithanewchallenge?Thenwearelikelytotakeamorepassiveroleornottryatall.Thesefeelingsofinsecurityandself-doubtarebothunavoidableandnecessaryifwearetochangeandgrow.Ifwedonotconfrontandovercometheseinternalfearsanddoubts,ifweprotectourselvestoomuch,thenweceasetogrow.Webecometrappedinsideashellofourownmaking.55.Apersonisgenerallybelievedtoachievepersonalgrowthwhen.［A］hehasgivenuphissmokinghabit［B］hehasmadegreateffortsinhiswork［C］heiskeenonlearninganythingnew［D］hehastriedtodeterminewhereheisonhisjourney56.Intheauthor’seyes,onewhoviewspersonalgrowthasaprocesswould.［A］succeedinclimbingupthesocialladder［B］judgehisabilitytogrowfromhisownachievements［C］facedifficultiesandtakeupchallenges［D］aimhighandreachhisgoaleachtime57.Whentheauthorsays“anewwayofbeing”(Lines3,Para.3),heisreferringto.［A］anewapproachtoexperiencingtheworld［B］anewwayoftakingrisks［C］anewmethodofperceivingourselves［D］anewsystemofadaptingtochange58.Forpersonalgrowth,theauthoradvocatesallofthefollowingexcept.［A］curiosityaboutmorechances［B］promptnessinself-adaptation［C］open-mindednesstonewexperiences［D］avoidanceofinternalfearsanddoubtsPassage3Insuchachanging,complexsocietyformerlysimplesolutionstoinformationalneedsbecomecomplicated.Manyoflife’sproblemswhichweresolvedbyaskingfamilymembers,friendsorcolleaguesarebeyondthecapabilityoftheextendedfamilytoresolve.Wheretoturnforexpertinformationandhowtodeterminewhichexpertadvicetoacceptarequestionsfacingmanypeopletoday.Inadditiontothis,thereisthegrowingmobilityofpeoplesinceWorldWarⅡ.Asfamiliesmoveawayfromtheirstablecommunity,theirfriendsofmanyyears,theirextendedfamilyrelationships,theinformalflowofinformationiscutoff,andwithittheconfidencethatinformationwillbeavailablewhenneededandwillbetrustworthyandreliable.Thealmostunconsciousflowofinformationaboutthesimplestaspectsoflivingcanbecutoff.Thus,thingsoncelearnedsubconsciouslythroughthecasualcommunicationsoftheextendedfamilymustbeconsciouslylearned.Addingtosocialchangestodayisanenormousstockpileofinformation.Theindividualnowhasmoreinformationavailablethananygeneration,andthetaskoffindingthatonepieceofinformationrelevanttohisorherspecificproblemiscomplicated,timeconsumingandsometimesevenoverwhelming.Coupledwiththegrowingquantityofinformationisthedevelopmentoftechnologieswhichenablethestorageanddeliveryofmoreinformationwithgreaterspeedtomorelocationsthanhaseverbeenpossiblebefore.Computertechnologymakesitpossibletostorevastamountsofdatainmachine-readablefiles,andtoprogramcomputerstolocatespecificinformation.Telecommunicationsdevelopmentsenablethesendingofmessagesviatelevision,radio,andveryshortly,electronicmailtobombardpeoplewithmultitudesofmessages.Satelliteshaveextendedthepowerofcommunicationstoreporteventsattheinstantofoccurrence.Expertisecanbesharedworldwidethroughteleconferencing,andproblemsindisputecanbesettledwithouttheparticipantsleavingtheirhomesand/orjobstotraveltoadistantconferencesite.Technologyhasfacilitatedthesharingofinformationandthestorageanddeliveryofinformation,thusmakingmoreinformationavailabletomorepeople.Inthisworldofchangeandcomplexity,theneedforinformationisofgreatestimportance.Thosepeoplewhohaveaccurate,reliableup-to-dateinformationtosolvetheday-to-dayproblems,thecriticalproblemsoftheirbusiness,socialandfamilylife,willsurviveandsucceed.“Knowledgeispower”maywellbethetruestsayingandaccesstoinformationmaybethemostcriticalrequirementofallpeople.59.Theword“it”(Line3,Para.2)mostprobablyrefersto.［A］thelackofstablecommunities［B］thebreakdownofinformalinformationchannels［C］theincreasedmobilityoffamilies［D］thegrowingnumberofpeoplemovingfromplacetoplace60.Themainproblempeoplemayencountertodayarisesfromthefactthat..［A］theyhavetolearnnewthingsconsciously［B］theylacktheconfidenceofsecuringreliableandtrustworthyinformation［C］theyhavedifficultyobtainingtheneededinformationreadily［D］theycanhardlycarryoutcasualcommunicationswithanextendedfamily61.Fromthepassagewecaninferthat..［A］electronicmailwillsoonplayadominantroleintransmittingmessages［B］itwillbecomemoredifficultforpeopletokeepsecretsinaninformationera［C］peoplewillspendlesstimeholdingmeetingsorconferences［D］eventswillbereportedonthespotmainlythroughsatellites62.Wecanlearnfromthelastparagraphthat..［A］itisnecessarytoobtainasmuchknowledgeaspossible［B］peopleshouldmakethebestuseoftheinformationaccessible［C］weshouldrealizetheimportanceofaccumulatinginformation［D］itisofvitalimportancetoacquireneededinformationefficientlyPassage4Personalityistoalargeextentinherent—A-typeparentsusuallybringaboutA-typeoffspring.Buttheenvironmentmustalsohaveaprofoundeffect,sinceifcompetitionisimportanttotheparents,itislikelytobecomeamajorfactorinthelivesoftheirchildren.OneplacewherechildrensoakupA-characteristicsisschool,whichis,byitsverynature,ahighlycompetitiveinstitution.Toomanyschoolsadoptthe“winatallcosts”moralstandardandmeasuretheirsuccessbysportingachievements.Thecurrentpassionformakingchildrencompeteagainsttheirclassmatesoragainsttheclockproducesatwo-layersystem,inwhichcompetitiveA-typesseeminsomewaybetterthantheirB-typefellows.Beingtookeentowincanhavedangerousconsequences:rememberthatPheidippides,thefirstmarathonrunner,droppeddeadsecondsaftersaying:“Rejoice,weconquer!”Byfartheworstformofcompetitioninschoolsisthedisproportionateemphasisonexaminations.Itisarareschoolthatallowspupilstoconcentrateonthosethingstheydowell.Themeritsofcompetitionbyexaminationaresomewhatquestionable,butcompetitioninthecertainknowledgeoffailureispositivelyharmful.Obviously,itisneitherpracticalnordesirablethatallA-youngsterschangeintoB’s.Theworldneedstypes,andschoolshaveanimportantdutytotrytofitachild’spersonalitytohispossiblefutureemployment.Itistopmanagement.Ifthepreoccupationofschoolswithacademicworkwaslessened,moretimemightbespentteachingchildrensurervalues.Perhapsselectionforthecaringprofessions,especiallymedicine,couldbemadelessbygoodgradesinchemistryandmorebysuchconsiderationsassensitivityandsympathy.ItissurelyamistaketochooseourdoctorsexclusivelyfromAtypestock.B’sareimportantandshouldbeencouraged.63.Accordingtothepassage,A-typeindividualsareusually.［A］impatient［B］considerate［C］aggressive［D］agreeable64.Theauthorisstronglyopposedtothepracticeofexaminationsatschoolsbecause.［A］thepressureistoogreatonthestudents［B］somestudentsareboundtofail［C］failureratesaretoohigh［D］theresultsofexaminationsaredoubtful65.Theselectionofmedicalprofessionalsarecurrentlybasedon..［A］candidates’sensitivity［B］academicachievements［C］competitivespirit［D］surervalues66.Fromthepassagewecandrawtheconclusionthat..［A］thepersonalityofachildiswellestablishedatbirth［B］familyinfluencedominatestheshapingofone’scharacteristics［C］thedevelopmentofone’spersonalityisduetomultiplefactors［D］B-typecharacteristicscanfindnoplaceinacompetitivesocietyPassage5Thatexperiencesinfluencesubsequentbehaviorisevidenceofanobviousbutneverthelessremarkableactivitycalledremembering.Learningcouldnotoccurwithoutthefunctionpopularlynamedmemory.Constantpracticehassuchaneffectonmemoryastoleadtoskillfulperformanceonthepiano,torecitationofapoem,andeventoreadingandunderstandingthesewords.So-calledintelligentbehavourdemandsmemory,rememberingbeingaprimaryrequirementforreasoning.Theabilitytosolveanyproblemoreventorecognizethataproblemexistsdependsonmemory.Typically,thedecisiontocrossastreetisbasedonrememberingmanyearlierexperiences.Practice(orreview)tendstobuildandmaintainmemoryforataskorforanylearnedmaterial.Overaperiodofnopracticewhathasbeenlearnedtendstobeforgotten;andtheadaptiveconsequencesmaynotseemobvious.Yet,dramaticinstancesofsuddenforgettingcanbeseentobeadaptive.Inthissense,theabilitytoforgetcanbeinterpretedtohavesurvivedthroughaprocessofnaturalselectioninanimals.Indeed,whenone’smemoryofanemotionallypainfulexperienceleadstoseriousanxiety,forgettingmayproducerelief.Nevertheless,anevolutionaryinterpretationmightmakeitdifficulttounderstandhowthecommonlygradualprocessofforgettingsurvivednaturalselection.Inthinkingabouttheevolutionofmemorytogetherwithallitspossibleaspects,itishelpfultoconsiderwhatwouldhappenifmemoriesfailedtofade.Forgettingclearlyaidsorientationintime,sinceoldmemoriesweakenandthenewtendtostandout,providingcluesforinferringduration.Withoutforgetting,adaptiveabilitywouldsuffer;forexample,learnedbehaviorthatmighthavebeencorrectadecadeagomaynolongerbe.Casesarerecordedofpeoplewho(byordinarystandards)forgotsolittlethattheireverydayactivitieswerefullofconfusion.Thisforgettingseemstoservethesurvivaloftheindividualandthespecies.Anotherlineofthoughtassumesamemorystoragesystemoflimitedcapacitythatprovidesadaptiveflexibilityspecificallythroughforgetting.Inthisview,continualadjustmentsaremadebetweenlearningormemorystorage(input)andforgetting(output).Indeed,thereisevidencethattherateatwhichindividualsforgetisdirectlyrelatedtohowmuchtheyhavelearned.Suchdataoffergrosssupportofcontemporarymodelsofmemorythatassumeaninputoutputbalance.67.Fromtheevolutionarypointofview,.［A］forgettingforlackofpracticetendstobeobviouslyinadaptive［B］ifapersongetsveryforgetfulallofasuddenhemustbeveryadaptive［C］thegradualprocessofforgettingisanindicationofanindividual’sadaptability［D］suddenforgettingmaybringaboutadaptiveconsequences68.Accordingtothepassage,ifapersonneverforgot,..［A］hewouldsurvivebest［B］hewouldhavealotoftrouble［C］hisabilitytolearnwouldbeenhanced［D］theevolutionofmemorywouldstop69.Fromthelastparagraphweknowthat..［A］forgetfulnessisaresponsetolearning［B］thememorystoragesystemisanexactlybalancedinput-outputsystem［C］memoryisacompensationforforgetting［D］thecapacityofamemorystoragesystemislimitedbecauseforgettingoccurs70.Inthisarticle,theauthortriestointerpretthefunctionof..［A］remembering［B］forgetting［C］adapting［D］experiencingPartⅣEnglishChineseTranslationDirections:ReadthefollowingpassagecarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsentencesintoChinese.(15points)Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicaltestthatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andeveninCongress.(71)Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithillinformedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgrades,researchproductivity,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.(72)Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoerror.Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhatapersonlearned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindsofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.(73)Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.(74)Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpr