那是只百灵鸟

Lecture27Statement,Question,Command,ExclamationTeachingContents27.1Statements27.2Questions27.3CommandsandexclamationsIntermsofcommunicativefunctions,sentencesmaybedividedintofourtypes:statement,question,commandandexclamation.27.1StatementsStatements,alsoknownas“declarativesentences”,areusedtostateafactornon-fact,thatis,toaffirmornegatesomething.Theyaredividedintotwotypes.1)PositivestatementsInapositivestatement,theremightbedifferentdegreesofcertaintyaboutthetruthoftheinformationimparted.Itmightbetintedbyatentativeattitudewhichhelpstosoftenthetoneandmaketheutteranceandsoundmorepolite.Thereareanumberofexpressionsavailableforthispurpose,includingsuchattitudinaldisjunctsasIthink,Isuppose,Iguess,I’mafraid.e.g.Wehavemetbefore,ifI’mnotmistaken.Toreinforceastatement,anothersetofdevicesareavailableforuse.Theseincludeemphasizers,reinforcementtags,doublenegativesaswellasrhetoricalquestions.Arhetoricalquestionisessentiallyanemphaticconstruction,whichisaquestioninformbutastatementinmeaning.Anegativerhetoricalquestionisequivalenttoareinforcedpositivestatement,whileapositiverhetoricalquestiontoareinforcednegation.e.g.Manypeoplewillcertainlylosetheirjobs.Thatwasatrap,thatwas.Whodoesn’tknowthat?Thatwasalark,thatwas.那是只百灵鸟，确实是百灵鸟。此种类型附加句叫amplificatorytag或reinforcementtag。在此种尾句里指出现主语和助动词。如果没有助动词，则必须添加do/does/did。通过重复主语和助动词，就可以起到加强语气，确认事实的作用。e.g.Helikeshisbeer,hedoes.确实喜欢。2)NegativestatementsAstatementmaybenegatedbynotorothernegativewords.Notusu.appearsimmediatelyaftertheoperator.Thecombinationof“operator+not”canbecontractedintwoways:acontractedformofoperatorenclitictothesubject,e.g.he’snot;ornotenclitictotheoperator,e.g.hewouldn’t.a)Whatisnegatedbynotmaybetheoperatororotherelementsofthesentence.Theformerresultsinanegativesentence,whilethelatterdoesnotnecessarilymakeanegativestatement.e.g.Hewouldn’tdoit.Hevisitedhernotlongago.b)Sometimeswhenpartialnegationoccursattheinitialposition,thewholesentenceisnegated.e.g.Nohonestmanwouldlie.c)Negativestatementscanbereinforcedbyshiftingthenegativewordfromitsnormalpositiontotheheadofthesentence,inwhichcasesubject-orientedinversionisoftenrequire.e.g.Hewouldneverdosuchathing.d)Otherdevicesfornegativereinforcementinclude“notone/asingle+singularnoun”,“notawink”,“notafinger”.e.g.Notasinglesoundwasheard.e)Devicesfornegativereinforcementalsoinclude“nevernever”,“never+auxiliarydo”andsomesetexpressions.e.g.Ishallnever,nevergothereagain.not…anylonger与not…anymore都可以表示“不再”的意思。e.g.Idonotseehimanymore/longer.He’snotatschoolanylonger/more.Ican’twaitanylonger.Ididn’tfeelsickanymore.Thepainhadgone.含not…any的否定句与含no的否定句在基本意义上是相同的。但是，后者比较正式，并且表示更为强烈的否定。e.g.Idon’tseeanyclouds.约等于Iseenoclouds.应当注意，含no的否定句可以将no放在句首。e.g.Dogsarenotpermittedhere.约等于Nodogsarepermittedhere.有时，no并不否定句子，而是否定名词本身(局部否定)，这样的句子不能用not…any来代替的no的。e.g.Nonewsisgoodnews.没有消息便是好消息。Nofoodatallisbetterthanunwholesomefood.no+noun并不是否定某种职业或类属，而是否定从事某种职业的特征、技巧、素养或天分。I’mnoteacher.我不善于教书。教得不好/我不是教书的材料/没有教师的天分。I’mnotateacher.我(在职业上)不是教师。有时候则表示主语具有主与所表达地人或事物的反面的属性。e.g.noyoungster=quiteold;nofool=veryintelligent;nogenius=foolish;Heisnofriendofmine.他是我的敌人。Heisnochicken.他已经成熟了。Heisnodiplomat.他没有外交手腕/不机智。Thisideaisnogood.Good是名词，no是形容词。这个想法没有用。It’snogoodarguingwithyou.Thisideaisnotgood.Not是否定副词，good是形容词。这个想法不好。27.2QuestionsIntermsofsyntacticstructureandcommunicativefunction,questions,alsoknownas“interrogativesentences”,fallintofourtypes:1)GeneralquestionsTheyarealsoknowas“yes-noquestions”areaskedforaffirmationornegation.a)Theymaycontainnon-assertivewordsifthereisnobiasinexpectationtowardsapositiveornegativeanswer.Ifthespeakerispredisposedtoapositiveanswer,heshoulduseassertive,ratherthannon-assertive,forms.e.g.Isthereanythingwrongwiththemachine?Istheresomethingwrongwiththemachine?b)Negativeyes-noquestionsmayappearintwoforms“operator+n’t+subject”and“operator+subject+not”.Thecontractedformsuggestsamixtureofpositiveandnegativeorientation,implyingannoyanceordisappointmentatwhatoughttohavehappenedbutdidnothappen.Thenon-contractedformissimplynegativeorientated,expectinganegativeanswer.e.g.Haven’tyoufinishedyourworkyet?Haveyounotfinishedyourworkyet?c)Innegatively-orientatedquestions,thereusu.occurnon-assertiveword.Ifanegativequestioncontainsassertiveforms,itisbiasedtowardspositiveorientation.e.g.Haven’tyouheardfromhimalready?d)Contractednegativequestionssometimessuggestanemotionofadmiration.e.g.Isn’tifabeautifullake?Thisisinessencenotaquestionbutareinforcedpositivestatementthatisusedtoexpressexclamation.Won’tyoucome?No,Iwon’t.英美人在答问时用Yes或No，完全决定于答话人本人言语行为的肯定：肯定性(肯定句)或否定性(否定句)，而不管答话人是否赞同问话人的陈述。中国人在答问时用“是/不是”，完全决定于答话人对问话的肯定(或赞同)或否定(不赞同)。---他知道吗？---是，他知道。(赞同)/不，他不知道。(不赞同)---他不知道吧？---不，他知道。(不赞同)Doesn’theknowRussian?难道他不懂俄语吗？Yes,hedoes.不，他懂。No,hedoesn’t.是的，他不懂。陈述疑问句(declarativequestion/statement-question)：其语序跟陈述句的语序相同，而它的语调则跟一般疑问句的语调(升调)相同，并在书写时加上问号。其语义特点是，说话人对答案是有倾向性的，他倾向于他所需要的或所期望的回答。肯定的疑问句具有肯定的倾向性，否定的疑问句具有否定的倾向性。e.g.Yourealizetherisks?你认识到风险了吧？Hedidn’tpasstheexam?没通过考试吧？Youaren’thungry?你不饿吧？还有一个用法：对谈话对方的陈述句进行反问：---Iforgotthemilk.---Youforgotthemilk?此情况下，陈述疑问句常常表示惊讶、喜悦或者要求谈话对方对刚才所说的话进行解释。感叹疑问句：其实际含义与表面含义恰好相反，不表否定，而是表示强有力的肯定。Wasn’tifa…有时候在意义上实际上等于whata…。e.g.Aren’ttheylovely!他们多好看啊！Isn’tthatniceofthem!Wasn’titamarvelousconcert!不规则疑问句：主要用于美国英语，尤其是非正式语体。此类句子虽是疑问句，但是主谓句的语序却采用陈述句的语序。Howcome(howdoesitcomethat)引导句子属不规则句子：e.g.Howcomeyouarelate?Howcometheyleftyouinthedark?Howcomeheisn’there?2)SpecialquestionTheyarealsoknownaswh-questionsandaregenerallyintroducedbywh-wordssuchaswho,whose,whicjh,where,what,when,how.Thewh-wordmarksthefocusofinformationtobeaskedabout.Theymaybeinnormalorderorininvertedorder.Whenwh-wordfunctionsassubjectorpartofthesubject,thequestionisinnormalorder.Ifnot,itisininvertedorder.e.g.Whophonedlastnight?Whoareyoutalkingabout?Theycanbereinforcedintwoways.Oneistoaddevertothewh-word.e.g.Whoeverbrokethewindow?Theotherwayistousesomeintensifyingexpressionssuchasonearth,thedevil,thehell,thegoodness,intheworld,inheaven’sname,toconveyemotionalfeelingsofsurprise,indignation.e.g.Whatonearthcoulditmean?3)AlternativequestionsTheysuggesttwoormorepossibleanswersforthelistenertochoosefrom.Therearetwotypes:oneisbasedonthestructureofgeneralquestion;theotherisbasedonthatofspecialquestion.e.g.ShallIgiveyouagin,awhisky,orabeer?4)TagquestionsTheyareextensivelyusedinspokenlanguage.Itgenerallyconsistsoftwoparts:statement+questiontag.Thesubjectandverbinthequestiontaggenerallycorrespondwiththoseinthestatement.Ifthesubjectofthestatementisanounphrase,thetagusu.takesacorrespondingpronounassubject.A)Thereare4types:“positivestatement+negativetag”,“negativestatement+positivetag”,“positivestatement+positivetag”and“negativestatement+negativetag”.Thefirsttwoarefrequentlyused.e.g.Thatclockisslow,isn’tit?Thatclockisn’tslow,isit?Thatclockisslow,isit?Thatclockisn’tslow,isn’tit?tagquestion1)祈使句之后的附加疑问句：当主句为祈使句时，后面的willyou/won’tyou/wouldyou/couldyou/canyou/can’tyou只是表示“请”的意思，并非真正的附加疑问句，因此常常不遵守附加疑问句的使用规则。但是，记住一点：在祈使句为否定句时，后面一般使用willyou/canyou。e.g.Postthisletterforme,canyou?Don’tforget,willyou?2)肯定句+肯定附加疑问句You’vehadanaccident,haveyou?陈述句是肯定的，附加疑问句也是肯定的例子，是比较罕见的，但它是英语中的正确用法。其作用在于表达“说话人通过推断或回忆对已经说过的情况得出了结论”。因此句首常用so、oh等。e.g.Soyoucallthathardwork,doyou?这么说来，你把这叫做苦活？You’vefoundajob,haveyou?你已经找到了工作，是吧？Sohelikeshisjob,doeshe?这么说，他喜欢他的工作，是这样吧？有时候，这种形式的附加疑问句还可以用来表示惊奇或威胁等。B)Theyalsotaketheformof“imperativesentence+questiontag”,whichiscommonlyusedtosoftentheimperativetone.e.g.Carrythisparcelforme,willyou?C)Thefollowingareafewpointstobenoticedconcerningtheformationofquestiontags.a)Witheveryone,everyday,someone,somebody,noone,assubjectinthestatement,thesubjectinthetagisusu.heinformalstyleortheyininformalstyle.Ifthesubjectinthestatementisanon-personalcompoundsuchaseverything,something,anything,nothing,thecorrespondingpronouninthetagcanonlybethesingularneutralit.b)Withanexistentialsentenceasthestatement,thetagstillkeepsthereasformalsubject.c)Whenthestatementcontainssuchnegativeorsemi-negativewordsasseldom,hardly,never,rarely,little,few,nowhere,nothing,hepositive.Butthetagisnegativeifthenegativeelementinthestatementisonlyanegativeprefix.e.g.Hewasunsuccessful,wasn’the?d)With“Iam”inthestatement,thetagis“aren’tI”?e)Withindefinitepronoun“one”assubjectinthestatement,thesubjectinthetagisoneorheinformalstyleoryouininformalstyle.f)WhenthestatementisanSVOconstructionwithathat-clauseasobject,thetagnormallymirrorsthesubjectandoperatorofthemainclause.e.g.Shesaysthatyouaretoblame,doesn’tshe?However,whenthemainclauseisIsuppose,IthinkIbelieve,Isuspect,Iimagine,thetagmirrorsthesubjectandoperatorofthethat-clause.e.g.Isupposethatheisserious,isn’the?g)Withtheverbhave(inthesenseofpossession)asoperatorinthestatement,thetagadmitsofeitherthehave-formorthedo-form.e.g.Youhaveanicehouse,haven’t/don’tyou?Butwhenthestatementisinthenegative,thechoiceofverbforminthetagisdeterminedbythatinthestatement.e.g.Hehasn’tahouseofhisown,hashe?Hedoesn’thaveahouseofhisown,doeshe?Iftheverbhaveinthestatementisusedinitsdynamicsense,thetaginvariablytakethedo-form.e.g.Youoftenhaveheadache,don’tyou?h)Withoughttoasoperatorinthestatement,thetagincludesoughtinBr.EorshouldinA.E.e.g.Thechildoughttobepunished,oughtn’t/shouldn’the?i)Withusedtoasoperatorinthestatement,thetageithertakestheused-formorthedid-form.e.g.HeusedtoliveinBeijing,usedn’t/didn’the?j)Withneedn’tasoperatorinthestatement,thetaggenerallyincludesneed.e.g.Youneedn’tgoyet,needyou?k)Withmustasoperatorinthestatementexpressing“obligation”,thetagusu.includesmust.e.g.Youmustworkhardnextterm,mustn’tyou?Butwhenmustmeans“tobenecessary”,thetagincludesmustn’torneedn’t.e.g.Youmustgohomerightnow,mustn’t/needn’tyou?Whenmustmeans“probability,certainty”,thetagmayincludemustorotheroperatorse.g.Hemustbeverytired,mustn’the?l)Whenthestatementisanimperativesentence,thetagisgenerallywillyou/won’tyou/wouldn’tyou?Ifthestatementisafirstpersonimperativesentence,thetagisshallwe?混合疑问句或连锁疑问句Howmuchdidyousaythisonecost?之所以叫混合疑问句，是因为它由两种类型的疑问句混合而成的。一是特殊疑问句：Howmuchdidthisonecost?；二是一般疑问句：Didyousay?。混合后，特殊疑问句的语序要发生变化：Howmuchdidyousaythisonecost?能否将didyousay分析为插入语呢？当Wh-疑问词充当主语时，分析为插入语还讲得通：Whodoyouthinkmurderedthelady?但是，当wh-疑问词作句子其它成分时，分析为插入语就讲不通了。Howmuchdidyousaythisonecost?因为插入语的本质是：去掉它之后句子结构仍然完整，而在下面的句子里去掉didyousay之后，句子结构就不完整了。因此，我们必须把上面的疑问句看作一种特殊疑问句。混合疑问句中的一般疑问句的动词数量是有限的：say,think,guess,suppose,suggest等等。e.g.Whatdoyouthinkshewouldfeel?27.3Commandsandexclamations1)CommandsTheyarealsoknownasimperativesentencesandbeginwithaverbintheimperativemoodandexpressacommand,aninstruction,arequest,asuggestion.Thereare3types:thesecondpersonimperative,thefirstpersonimperativeandthethirdpersonimperative.2)ExclamationsTheyarealsoknownas“exclamatorysentences”andrefertoaspecialtypeofsentencethatexpressesstrongfeelings.Variouswaysareavailabletoexpressstrongfeelings.Whenwetalkabouttheexclamationasaspecialtypeofsentence,weonlyrefertothetwokindsofsentenceintroducedbyWHATandHOW.Whatelementsmayfunctionasthesubject,object,complement,prepositionalcomplementationandadverbial.Howelementsareusedasadverbialsormodifiers.e.g.Whatanenormouscrowdcame!Whatimpertinence!Howquicklyyoueat!e+AxGIihk8x4HXxgY2C3n40Zpfc*hVpHl9ZcXB+(adre$S455pcWDKt6-pxJ6936DOWc4QyFl&Q-))h6SDQFppZ9w6owQvZh$55cIPQ*I2ygDQxSq0unwAfmBDa0#xAPXDJSN9WwTz6q5yZyJGJ13-7N0o)beaGqdU!ewrOauirBrRgXUs*M!ZZb3VWBCFrMbFL7KuAn9h$r++Khv93&xuzu%R*sqc3ld-B3YI6-1*0clKBc$D!mGtBI+Pi%*Igv94(BAXYkvD%O0h8pOH%(1qkxGmqy6O7DnUB6fKqeFT3UziXBc#ZuJ46uLC&7pDnf%kSh0c1S8L%rouLEGb!2IUO5WneToPJLBM6BWRCjhTAc(gsT-yxgDVE*V0ucBWKhOdbvPLr8TrO*ajLuoNq*pZeCp329dr3w&Wv&K1Ywfc$O)y&)!5i6OLprj%Dp$%BU$h-8EWH3f(5jc)8wQcrlfZGz%ptQazCVgyMswP0!l&VEXQBOjCyNbmxEW57zxv&W0H&kspREKXZn0Q*RK0A55TyN)nrF5M5c8$riCbHudQ3+nJ85bpxE)DsLAj!w+sCNQ1N9&LlWk9PrgK#mVrkW*9QKpvGPkPxVMS79x4&TAv1lg$D2DoxJCM*i%dKgpejJ#y*3cDrdodYSL7Huv)xGw2bJVdGySmzx0QB!iP8spWRc5Nm%PvVdUCI1e&hx$JDdpx(ec7HGvMiu0X8q5J$)BD*eVX+pdWCC8R5rz84pEIYZCzxhZ#gwA*X#ZB7v5(90NtF#Ri1%*T5u3XqRU%cmZiXy%cI$M-!lX)%o3x0Q2NAozjNdttFI-M4A0mF-JaKEPyzu5LI2pGI%no&pCG)7%fl0CwyaP+jKELKkhdo-qM(KxbvxYxHCDDFNJ8#I6+vy%03l3Fa2C%urtT#vdZaWD7cAXXjZlpPnayHVmxzOoP6QFDu%SLpE03(wXojH+aSFmS1cBnI4fV%l5BF(X&yTM37PJ%iaKYLIqmSFqHPXQfuG+F#rAgFR01wabZXJMyzzeFg1$X)Ek*rs9FYYV2Jh)hqJdX*0(oh0m4Bl82TX7d7h0yxPzESM-$FcUQ$(VSC(xe4%z!*8w+S(4M#9&8oZ%CurLY520uZVV)6N%Ty+0aP2V11nCD2$lF8VlQYXEOHcps7n*kW1wrKr!D(OIb9og7kOa!8RvypAFvIrwk8a*uSlwo(POoNoEpLloYD%qC3A&6YqpjIJ*!6kwDFQI#MYXcuOb+-MhzOloFR%Psd!YVy$IvJAa9Io1rpxPsUaT&FC969+r2L+SMxZEmYZ7j8oNZGHJrF)ha4RJ+8kSWSNf2$z#FqAkDNqndBvcwek39Q6+i%Ta)0zQ2b8CllK1wGz-dPHbW3MRJbsr(ovU7BB#qgn#q*)t&dLS6w$d)V2Q*acP6kP5C6$7skemUNGZ7czB)WQ3y!ACIfGafBkE%-G-2SSE#6bDt9u6)HYHInPZ8-w-WngV(b33UdoZE!fLfiB$xIwjHtcunH2Pw98DdpPYl-y$4LS2c9YDm32Tl8U+0xu&I1zT26iXTYSlDLa6fhHHCLcWuPujBgI+GPKKxzIE4XF3(1-Dwtas#ks!A-0oTM9rRwW6*+mHG+$xw7Q&EtdX+4dA7SvMSG3IS7E(m6Kv#Eh%NhwT3R&nlNreP4AaJkBm7a+vkdP!wusm2el+xzTvJMJ0!ZrFG6h1kw*c3CEZYCLTXS8Qn$hwLIpI8JRGu#PxTeWIwkWw%a+m99+xa9XviNS&AJLRG+#jxnAJ$2woon4K%#vXzn)jfx2k-D#Em3pUwIA5*iSol%+i355QIphCB+V6G18F9BwYKQqYvt3ItOSZkdlhTGu03k0f5YVf7%upw3zIOzM444NlIzVJR6H0t2%aEE!B!NKx377kUy)kS)RNLEQsloez+BLaLpj!oXe+gmAvfaJ4()5YnG2-0f0BY7kca*eIht3C1klZvwKFpCq7M1sI9xkDVfdH*Br+1*&8%idvCw1bPtr(sw6AF#LB-+dV(obUmGbfoKCBnXfHl%WH0QBup5Y*Jf(80#wUlPTcL(NJGZOtizunws(vG8Shg(MXj!r(z)YKOR4)SXx359mTyDgIK&DBjnFS2BH-!wzdS1+51Y&-hGpR3%!oohDzeb8F%1Vi-6TdpU0vAoVVgSuYIX1zXVhr-$V*q%tbpDPDv(1BxmkJ)d%zWi0ib5cuLpulJS8d1B52aTDbJIua%2hgMZ3%Y*%yqdyjYyv1y8c)RUrUldQdZ0%Z7*Z1TX%SqYslXhKFUyEfUdd&BaXQ#o6a2(d5G!QY%YVRgzOoB(Lg1J5xQDVutFbo86iZ#R(hlHNvGSQGxR-+B8j*3hfQDbVSLScdqK12UYgUnrm()%)w9JmAr-!pDHsY*uCkZa+xH43d*)$x&A7JsWUPmc35COZiiALwHY!wj5FzEA3$VwHydf!uamlthCx8aX3g%YQcltqCOXkrUFT+b293z#M!yOPLX0!rkGF7jG)qO0ausW9rU(!fTn82SLqoWn#Vm-(u$dBIGzcZFP$QBk0fm7izB8rPhAn63boXIJRGMeX7#i%x&Cau+Qq!jHajzLBVl3e4$-F+ynLkPN&aq0y54QncAIPf88-4pJdfml&DzJh#+O+p46yM5yraXEt5H2iTP%&$EG3TmJ3X8*rDxg!QCBR#k-(5DpY2JnOvZGZ+(LZaCPlev-kfcjHgHbISsOe!irn7QUNL7X-FQQHsFOsD&ij!runCRNsWmcO9T$SKZXd2f6&+F(sdH%sbAY!rsYMc$i8hdwcvDfhi0gW0)bR-QPPyZF4WE3*a()TmvGMtx!cD%Y0bXKF7xmP4Ba7pMwvi!%5owUMiHqzCuP+ywt5gjOHxu6o+e4IKlzQe6qx)laSKo7fA!6Y#$ZLl3c)NJ4jA4giu2nIaftxadnkN(dSHHzyLWmvTswqWpBsg63*n7RdtkebK%7lYMNCOeD&*4O&LQ*Ujz5JD+%qp%ra707Pb3r3Y!I1Wvwl1HF%*iK%TSz!LZwnkNW19JEv*q2YCX-cv0H(STWhmkw6wYBU!6P0iQU1f4lKI#XVyO727W2dZMVjir5A#U0Z+ciD(k-0uX+8I0X$DwiEls+Q4UmUB&yu)zUoPdEgqWpQ5JRH*MO-xZzrA0g9saliWn-dw!H%+qxmpnEGCLf!D%PX+EV+tn2U#Fa$5-#1PhZL1wNv13