国际贸易实务-双语教案-附术语中英文对译介绍

精选优质文档-----倾情为你奉上精选优质文档-----倾情为你奉上专心---专注---专业专心---专注---专业精选优质文档-----倾情为你奉上专心---专注---专业国际贸易实务教案Chapter1BriefIntroductiontoInternationalTrade国际贸易简介1.1Reasonsforinternationaltrade1.1.1ResourcesReasons(1)Naturalresources.(2)Favorableclimateconditionsandterrain.(3)Skilledworkersandcapitalresources.(4)Favorablegeographiclocationandtransportationcosts.1.1.2EconomicReasons(1)Comparativeadvantage(2)Strongdomesticdemand(3)Innovationorstyle1.1.3PoliticalReasons1.2ProblemsConcerningInternationalTrade1.2.1CulturalProblems(1)Language.(2)Customsandmanners.1.2.2MonetaryConversions1.2.3TradeBarriersIndividualcountriesputcontrolsontradeforthefollowingthreereasons:(1)Tocorrectabalance-of-paymentsdeficit.(2)Forreasonsofnationalsecurity.(3)Toprotecttheirownindustriesagainstthecompetitionofforeigngoods.Althoughtariffshavebeenloweredsubstantiallybyinternationalagreements,countriescontinuetouseotherdevicestolimitimportsortoincreaseexports.Someoftheseare:(1)requiringimportlicensesthatpermitonlyspecificvolumesorvaluesimports;(2)settingquotasthatlimitthetotalvalueorvolumeofaproducttobeimported;(3)limitinggovernmentpurchasestofirmswithinthecountry;(4)applyingstandardsforsafety,consumerprotection,orotherreasons,whichforeignproductsmaynotbeabletomeet;(5)makingspecialpaymentscalledexportsubsidiestoencouragelocalexporterstoincreaseforeignsales;(6)targeting——anewtermmeaningtheimpositionofapackageofmeasurestogivecertainlocalindustriesacompetitiveadvantageinexportmarkets.Itmightincludeexportsubsidies,technicalassistance,subsidiesforresearchanddevelopment,andfinancialassistance;(7)requiringlicensestoobtainforeigncurrenciesbythosewhowanttobuygoodsfromabroad——thuslimitingthequantityofimportstheycanbuy;(8)reducingthevalueofanation’scurrencyinrelationtothatoftherestoftheworldsothatitsexportedgoodscostlessinothercountriesanditsimportscostmore;(9)imposingconditionsonforeignproductssuchasrequiringthattheirgoodscontainacertainamountoflocallyproducedproducts;(10)restrictingtradeinbanking,insurance,andotherserviceprofessions.练习一：导论思考题：1国际贸易实务课程的主要任务和研究对象是什么？本课程包括哪些主要内容？2与国内贸易相比进出口贸易有何特点？3国际贸易中影响较大的惯例、条约有哪些？其主要内容是什么？有何特点？4根据我国合同法规定，合同应包括哪些主要内容？5进出口贸易一般要经过哪几个步骤？在进出口业务中，出口商/进口商的主要工作是什么？Chapter5.TradeTermsandExportPricingPartI.Outline本章要点5.1TradeTermsandInternationalTradePractices贸易术语与国际贸易惯例5.213TradeTermsinINCOTERMS2000《2000通则》中的13中贸易术语5.3SelectionofTradeTerms贸易术语的选用5.4ExportPricing出口定价5.1TradeTermsandInternationalTradePractices贸易术语与国际贸易惯例5.1.1国际货物买卖适用的法律与惯例1、交易双方当事人所在国的国内法2、国家对外缔结或参加的有关国际贸易、国际运输、商标、专利、仲裁等方面的条约和协定。3、公认的国际贸易惯例5.1.2国际贸易惯例的性质与作用1、国际贸易惯例的含义2、国际贸易惯例的形成与发展国际贸易惯例的形成应具备以下几个条件：（1）它是经过长期反复实践而形成的，内容比较明确和具有规范性，是各国人民在经济活动中多次重复的经济行为。（2）需要经过有关国家民事方面的承认，并有国家的强制力保证它的实现，有赖于国际认可。（3）与现行法律没有冲突，不违背公共秩序和良好风俗，不违反国家利益，一般来讲也是现行法律中所没有规定的。3、国际贸易惯例的性质与作用5.1.3主要的国际贸易公约与惯例1、在买卖合同方面（1）1980年《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》；（2）英国《1893年货物买卖法案》。2、在贸易术语方面（1）国际商会《2000年国际贸易术语解释通则》；（2）国际法协会《1932年华沙－牛津规则》；（3）美国全国对外贸易协会《1941年美国对外贸易定义修正本》。3、在结算方面（1）《国际汇票与本票国际公约》；（2）国际商会《跟单信用证统一惯例》，1993年修订，国际商会500号出版物；（3）国际商会《托收统一规则》，1995年修订，国际商会522号出版物。4、在运输方面（1）1924年《统一提单的若干法律规则的国际公约》（海牙规则）；（2）1968年《修订统一提单的若干法律规则的国际公约的议定书》（维斯比规则）；（3）1978年《联合国海上货物运输公约》（汉堡规则）；（4）1975年国际商会《联合运输单证统一规则》；（5）《国际航空运输协定》；（6）《国际铁路货物联运协定》（国际货协）；（7）《国际铁路货物运输公约》（国际货约）；（8）《联合国国际货物多式联运公约》。5、在运输保险方面（1）英国伦敦保险协会《协会货物保险条款》；（2）国际海事委员会《1974年约克－安特卫普规则》。6、在仲裁方面（1）1976年《联合国国际贸易法委员会仲裁规则》；（2）1958年联合国《承认和执行外国仲裁决定的公约》。7、在专利与工业产权保护方面（1）1967年《保护工业产权巴黎公约》；（2）1967年《商标注册马德里协定》；（3）1967年《商标注册条约》；（4）1973年《成立世界知识产权组织公约》。5.1.4有关贸易术语的国际贸易惯例1、贸易术语的含义及其产生和发展2、贸易术语的作用（1）简化交易手续，缩短洽商时间，节约费用开支。（2）有利于交易双方进行比价和加强成本核算。（3）有利于妥善解决贸易争端。3、有关贸易术语的国际贸易惯例（1）《1932年华沙－牛津规则》（Warsaw-OxfordRules1932）（2）《1941年美国对外贸易定义修订本》（RevisedAmericanForeignTradeDefinition1941）（3）《2000年国际贸易术语解释通则》（INCOTERMS2000）5.213TradeTermsinINCOTERMS2000《2000通则》中的13种贸易术语国际电码交货地点风险转移界限出口报关国际运输货运保险进口报关适用的运输方式EXW商品产地、所在地货交买方处置时起买方买方买方买方任何方式FCA出口国内地、港口货交承运人处置时起卖方买方买方买方任何方式FAS装运港口货交船边后卖方买方买方买方水上运输FOB装运港口货物越过装运港船舷卖方买方买方买方水上运输CFR装运港口货物越过装运港船舷卖方卖方买方买方水上运输CIF装运港口货物越过装运港船舷卖方卖方卖方买方水上运输CPT出口国内地、港口货交承运人处置时起卖方卖方买方买方任何方式CIP出口国内地、港口货交承运人处置时起卖方卖方卖方买方任何方式DAF两国边境指定地点货交买方处置时起卖方卖方卖方买方任何方式DES目的港口目的港船上货物交买方处置时起卖方卖方卖方买方水上运输DEQ目的港口目的港码头货物交买方处置时起卖方卖方卖方买方水上运输DDU进口国内在指定目的地货交买方处置时起卖方卖方卖方买方任何方式DDP进口国内在指定目的地货交买方处置时起卖方卖方卖方卖方任何方式5.3SelectionofTradeTerms贸易术语的选用1、应注意各组贸易术语的特点2、考虑运输条件3、考虑货源情况4、考虑运费因素5、考虑运输途中的风险6、考虑办理进出口货物结关手续有无困难5.4ExportPricing出口商品价格5.4.1componentsofpriceterms合同中的价格条款合同中商品单价一般包括四个部分，即：计价货币；单价；计量单位；贸易术语例如：“100美元/打CIF伦敦”$100perdozenCIFLondontypeofcurrency;priceperunit;measurementunit;tradeterms5.4.2MoneyofAccount计价货币的选择5.4.3CommissionandDiscount佣金和折扣的运用5.4.4ExportPricing出口定价PartII.SupplementaryReadingTheThreePopularTradeTermsTradePracticesandInterpretationsAboveall,itisdeemednecessaryforustoconcentrateonthethreepopulardeliverytermsFOB,CFR,andCIFforpracticalreasons,andnotworthwhiletodelveintoeveryoneoftherestofthedeliveryterms,owingtotheirrelativelylimitedapplicationinourimportandexporttrade.Asaforeigntradeworkerthereiseveryreasonforyoutobeknowledgeableontheusualtradepracticesanddifferentinterpretationsofthesedeliveryterms.Inthefirstplace,youmaysurprisinglycomeacrossdifferentinterpretationsofthedeliverytermswhennegotiatingabusinesscontractorsettingadisputewithforeigncounterparts,grantingthattherearemoresimilaritiesthandissimilaritiesinthisrespect.Theyareminordifferencesbyandlarge.Whenyouhaveathoroughgraspofthissubject,youwillbeinabetterpositiontodriveabargainwiththemandsafeguardyourinterestsagainstanypossiblesnags.Secondly,theinterpretationofthedeliverytermsandtheinternationalpracticeareratherconventionaland,inasense,deeprooted,havingrecognitionbybothbuyersandsellersforalongtime.Ifyoucanapplythemdexterouslytoyouradvantage,itisconductivetothepromotionofforeigntrade.Thirdly,whenanytradedisputesarise,youmaybeabletoinvoketheappropriatetradepracticetocopeunswervinglywithdifferentandevenintricateproblemsandsettlethedisputes.Whenyouaresureofyourapproachandtactics,youcantaketheinitiativeinbargainingwithbusinessadversariesandavoidembarrassment.Allthispointstothenecessityofacquiringcorrectunderstandingoftheseinterpretations.FOB…PortofShipmentA.Thesellermust:(1)Supplythegoodsinconformitywiththecontractofsale,togetherwithsuchevidenceofconformityasmayberequiredbythecontract.(2)Deliverthegoodsonboardthevesselnamedbythebuyer,atthenamedportofshipment,inthemannercustomaryattheport,atthedateorwithintheperiodstipulated,andnotifythebuyer,withoutdelay,thatthegoodshavebeendeliveredonboard.(3)Athisownriskandexpenseobtainanyexportlicenseorothergovernmentalauthorizationnecessaryfortheexportofthegoods.(4)SubjecttotheprovisionsofarticlesB.3andB.4below,bearallcostsandrisksofthegoodsuntilsuchtimeastheyshallhaveeffectivelypassedtheship’srailatthenamedportofshipment,includinganytaxes,feesorchargesleviedbecauseofexportation,aswellasthecostsofanyformalitieswhichheshalltofulfillinordertoloadthegoodsonboard.(5)Provideathisownexpensethecustomarypackingofthegoods,unlessitisthecustomofthetradetoshipthegoodsunpacked.(6)Paythecostsofanycheckingoperations(suchascheckingquality,measuring,weighing,counting)whichshallbenecessaryforthepurposeofdeliveringthegoods.(7)Provideathisownexpensethecustomarycleandocumentinproofofdeliveryofthegoodsalongsidethenamedvessel.(8)Providethebuyer,atthelatter’srequestandexpense(seeB.6),withthecertificateoforigin.(9)Renderthebuyer,atthelatter’srequest,riskandexpense,everyassistanceinobtainingabillofladingandanydocuments,otherthanthatmentionedinthepreviousarticle,issuedinthecountryofshipmentand/oroforiginandwhichthebuyermayrequirefortheimportationofthegoodsintothecountryofdestination(and,wherenecessary,fortheirpassageintransitthroughanothercountry).B.Thebuyermust:(1)Athisownexpense,charteravesselorreservethenecessaryspaceonboardavesselandgivethesellerduenoticeofthename,loadingberthofanddeliverydatestothevessel.(2)Bearallcostsandrisksofthegoodsfromthetimewhentheyshallhaveeffectivelypassedtheship’srailatthenamedportofshipment,andpaythepriceasprovidedinthecontract.(3)Bearanyadditionalcostsincurredbecausethevesselnamedbyhimshallhavefailedtoarriveonthestipulateddateorbytheendoftheperiodspecified,orshallbeunabletotakethegoodsorshallcloseforcargoearlierthanthestipulateddateortheendoftheperiodspecifiedandalltherisksofthegoodsfromthedateofexpirationoftheperiodstipulated,provided,however,thatthegoodsshallhavebeendulyappropriatedtothecontract,thatistosay,clearlysetasideorotherwiseidentifiedasthecontractgoods.(4)Shouldhefailtonamethevesselintimeor,ifheshallhavereservedtohimselfaperiodwithinwhichtotakedeliveryofthegoodsand/ortherighttochoosetheportofshipment,shouldhefailtogivedetailedinstructionsintime,bearanyadditionalcostsincurredbecauseofsuchfailure,andalltherisksofthegoodsfromthedateofexpirationoftheperiodstipulatedfordelivery,provided,however,thatthegoodsshallhavebeendulyappropriatedtothecontract,thatistosay,clearlysetasideorotherwiseidentifiedasthecontractgoods.(5)PayanycostsandchargesforobtainingabillofladingifincurredunderarticleA.9above.(6)PayallcostsandchargesincurredinobtainingthedocumentmentionedinarticlesA.8andA.9above,includingthecostsofcertificatesoforiginandconsulardocuments.VariantofFOBTermsTheinterpretationofFOBtermsvariesaccordingtolocalitywherethegoodsareloaded,inrespectofincidenceofloadingexpense.Thegeneralideaisthatthesellershallbearalltheexpenses,responsibilityandrisksbeforehisgoodsareloadedonboardaship.Whatismeanby“thegoodsareloadedonboardaship?”Itisopentovariedinterpretations.Thisconceptisconstruedinsomecountriesasthegoodshavingeffectivelypassedtheship’srail,andinsomeothercountriesasthegoodshavingbeenplacedonboardofaship,orhavingbeenputintotheship’shold.Thesethreestagesofloadingworkareactuallylinkedandencompassedinoneoperation.Whichoneofthethreeinterpretationsisadopteddeterminesthewayinwhichtheexpenses,responsibilityandrisksaredividedbetweenbuyerandseller.Itisamatterofconcerntotheforeigntradeworkersespeciallywhentheyarenegotiatingabigbusinessdeal,say,5,000,000m/tofwheat,coal,mineraloreandthelike.Theamountofloadingexpensescanbeastaggeringsumofmoney.Itmustbemadeclearatwhichpointoftimeinthecourseofloadingoperationtherisksshallpassfromsellertobuyer,anduptowhichpointoftimethebuyershallbegintobeartheloadingexpenses.Forinstance,atsomeEuropeanports,thesellershallpayalltheexpensesuntilthegoodsareputintotheship’sholdandstowedproperlyaccordingtoitsusualpractice(orcustom)oftheport;butatsomeotherports,thesellershallpaytheloadingexpensesexceptstowingexpenses.Furthermore,thereissuchacustom(orpractice)ofacertainportthattheseller’sobligationistosendthegoodstothewharfgodown(shed)only;atsomeotherports,theentireloadingexpenseistobedividedequallybetweenbuyerandseller.Inviewofthesevariants,asaforeigntradeworkerheoughttobecarefulabouttheapplicationoftheFOBtermsandmaydowelltochooseoneofthefollowingFOBvariantstosuithisneed.(1)FOBLinerTermsItmeansthatalltheloadingandunloadingexpensesaretobebornebythepartywhopaysthefreight,ie.thechartererofthecarryingvessel.UnderFOBterms,thesellersshallnotpayloadingexpenses,thechartererbeingthebuyer.(2)FOBStowedItdenotesthatthesellerpaystheloadingexpensesincludingstowingexpenses.(3)FOBTrimmedThistermsignifiesthatthesellerpaysalltheloadingexpensesincludingtrimmingexpense(whichactuallyalsoincludingstowingexpense).(4)FOBUnderTackleThistermonlyrequiresthesellertosendandplacethegoodsonthewharfwithinthereachoftheship’stackle.RemarksWhendealingwithcustomersfromCanada,theUnitedStatesandLatinAmericancountries,wemustusecaution,inasmuchastheyareusedtoadopting“RevisedAmericanForeignTradeDefinition1941”,whichprovidesforsixkindsofFOBterms,onlyoneofwhichisidenticalwithFOBtermsasunderIncoterms2000.Forinstance,ifyouuseFOBNewYorkforyourimports,itwillbeaseriousmistakebecauseinsuchacasethesellerswilldeliverthegoodstothecityofNewYorkonly.YoumustspecifyFOBvesselNewYork,inwhichcasethesellersshallloadthecargoonboardaship.Anotherpointwhichconcernstheinterestsofbothsellerandbuyeristhetimingofthearrivalofthecarryingshipwhichthebuyercharters,attheportofshipment.Ifthearrivaliswellinadvanceofthestipulateddateofshipment,thebuyermaywellbeplacedinanawkwardpositionasthegoodsmaynotbereadyforshipment,thenwhoisgoingtopaytheshipownerfortheidletime,ie.thedemurrage.Converselyifitisfarbehindthestipulatedtime,thewarehousingexpensesthusincurredshouldbebornebythebuyerwhoisresponsibleforcharteringtheship.Occasionally,thebuyermayentrustthesellerwithcharteringbusiness,howeverincasehefailstocharterashipasrequiredowingtosomeunforeseencircumstances,thesellerisnotliableforanyexpensesarisingtherefrom.Inanutshell,aforeigntradeworkermustbearinmindwhoseresponsibilityitis,thebuyer’sortheseller’s,tomakevariousarrangementsunderdifferentdeliveryterms,andwhatisthecorrectcontentoftheresponsibility.Intheendhewillnotbepuzzledwhenconfrontedwithanydifficultiesinhisexportandimportbusiness.CIF…PortofDestinationA.TheSellermust:(1)Supplythegoodsinconformitywiththecontractofsale,togetherwithsuchevidenceofconformityasmayberequiredbythecontract.(2)Contractonusualtermsathisownexpensesforthecarriageofthegoodstotheagreedportofdestinationbytheusualroute,inaseagoingvessel(notbeingasailingvessel)ofthetypenormallyusedforthetransportofgoodsofthecontractdescription,andpayfreightchargesandanychargesforunloadingattheportofdischargewhichmaybeleviedbyregularshippinglinesatthetimeandportofshipment.(3)Athisownriskandexpenseobtainanyexportlicenseorothergovernmentalauthorizationnecessaryfortheexportofthegoods.(4)Loadthegoodsathisownexpenseonboardthevesselattheportofshipmentandatthedateorwithintheperiodfixedor,ifneitherdatenortimehasbeenstipulated,withinareasonabletime,andnotifythebuyer,withoutdelay,thatthegoodshavebeenloadedonboardthevessel.(5)Procure,athisowncostandinatransferableform,apolicyofmarineinsuranceagainsttherisksofcarriageinvolvedinthecontract.TheinsuranceshallbecontractedwithunderwritersorinsurancecompaniesofgoodsreputeonFPAterms,andshallcovertheCIFpriceplustenpercent.Theinsuranceshallbeprovidedinthecurrencyofthecontract,ifprocurable.Unlessotherwiseagreed,therisksofcarriageshallnotincludespecialrisksthatarecoveredinspecifictradesoragainstwhichthebuyermaywishindividualprotection.Amongthespecialrisksthatshouldbeconsideredandagreeduponbetweensellerandbuyeraretheft,pilferage,leakage,breakage,chipping,sweat,contactwithothercargoesandotherspeculiartoanyparticulartrade.Whenrequiredbythebuyer,thesellershallprovide,atthebuyersexpense,warriskinsuranceinthecurrencyofthecontract,ifprocurable.(6)SubjecttotheprovisionsofarticleB.4below,bearallrisksofthegoodsuntilsuchtimeastheyshallhaveeffectivelypassedtheship’srailattheportofshipment.(7)Athisownexpensefurnishtothebuyerwithoutdelayacleannegotiablebillofladingfortheagreedportofdestination,aswellastheinvoiceofthegoodsshippedandtheinsurancepolicyor,should,theinsurancepolicynotbeavailableatthetimethedocumentsaretendered,acertificateofinsuranceissuedundertheauthorityoftheunderwritersandconveyingtothebearerthesamerightsasifhewereinpossessionofthepolicyandreproducingtheessentialprovisionsthereof.Thebillofladingmustcoverthecontractgoods,bedatedwithintheperiodagreedforshipment,andprovidebyendorsementorotherwisefordeliverytotheorderofthebuyerorbuyer’sagreedrepresentative.Suchbillofladingmustbeafullsetof“onboard”or“shipped”billsoflading,ora“receivedforshipment”billofladingdulyendorsedbytheshippingcompanytotheeffectthatthegoodsareonboard,suchendorsementtobedatedwithintheperiodagreedforshipment.Ifthebillofladingcontainsareferencetothecharterparty,thesellermustalsoprovideacopyofthislatterdocument.Note:Acleanbillofladingisonewhichbearsnosuperimposedclausesexpresslydeclaringadefectiveconditionofthegoodsorpackaging.Thefollowingclausesdonotconvertacleanintoanuncleanbilloflading:(a)Clauseswhichdonotexpresslystatethatthegoodsorpackagingareunsatisfactory,eg.“second-handcases”,“useddrums”,etc.(b)Clauseswhichemphasizethecarrier’snon-liabilityforrisksarisingthroughthenatureofthegoodsorthepackaging;(c)Clauseswhichdisclaimonthepartofthecarrierknowledgeofcontents,weight,measurement,quality,ortechnicalspecificationofthegoods.(8)Provideathisownexpensethecustomarypackingofthegoods,unlessitisthecustomofthetradetoshipthegoodsunpacked.(9)Paythecostsofanycheckingoperations(suchascheckingquality,measuring,weighing,counting)whichshallbenecessaryforthepurposeofloadingthegoods.(10)Payanyduesandtaxesincurredinrespectofthegoodsuptothetimeoftheirloading,includinganytaxes,feesorchargesleviedbecauseofexportation,aswellasthecostsofanyformalitieswhichheshallhavetofulfillinordertoloadthegoodsonboard.(11)Providethebuyer,atthelatter’srequestandexpense(seeB.5),withthecertificateoforiginandtheconsularinvoice.(12)Renderthebuyer,atthelatter’srequest,riskandexpense,everyassistanceinobtaininganydocumentsotherthanthosementionedinthepreviousarticle,issuedinthecountryofshipmentand/oroforiginandwhichthebuyermayrequirefortheimportationofthegoodsintothecountryofdestination(and,wherenecessary,fortheirpassageintransitthroughanothercountry).B.Thebuyermust:(1)Acceptthedocumentswhentenderedbytheseller,iftheyareinconformitywiththecontractofsale,andpaythepriceasprovidedinthecontract.(2)Receivethegoodsattheagreedportofdestinationandbear,withtheexceptionofthefreightandmarineinsurance,allcostsandchargesincurredinrespectofthegoodsinthecourseoftheirtransitbyseauntiltheirarrivalattheportofdestination,aswellasunloadingcosts,includinglighterageandwharfagecharges,unlesssuchcostsandchargesshallhavebeenincludedinthefreightorcollectedbythesteamshipcompanyatthetimefreightwaspaid.Ifwarinsuranceisprovided,itshallbeattheexpenseofthebuyer(see.A.5).Note:Ifthegoodsaresold“CIFLanded”,unloadingcosts,includinglighterageandwharfagechargesarebornebytheSeller.(3)Bearallrisksofthegoodsfromthetimewhentheyshallhaveeffectivelypassedtheship’srailattheportofshipment.(4)Incasehemayhavereservedtohimselfaperiodwithinwhichtohavethegoodsshippedand/ortherighttochoosetheportofdestination,andhefailstogiveinstructionsintime,beartheadditionalcoststherebyincurredandallrisksofthegoodsfromthedateoftheexpirationoftheperiodfixedforshipment,providedalwaysthatthegoodsshallhavebeendulyappropriatedtothecontract,thatistosay,clearlysetasideorotherwiseidentifiedasthecontractgoods.(5)Paythecostsandchargesincurredinobtainingthecertificateoforiginandconsulardocuments.(6)PayallcostsandchargesincurredinobtainingthedocumentsmentionedinarticleA.12above.(7)Payallcustomsdutiesaswellasanyotherdutiesandtaxespayableatthetimeoforbyreasonoftheimportation.(8)Procureandprovideathisownriskandexpenseanyimportlicenseorpermitorthelikewhichhemayrequirefortheimportationofthegoodsatdestination.SomeIntricateProblems(1)UnderCIFterms,thesellerisobligatedtoarrangeinsuranceandpayinsurancepremium.ItisprovidedforinIncotermsthatthegoodsshouldbecoveredonFPAtermsat110%oftheinvoicevalue.However,sometimes,thebuyersrequestWPAinsuranceinsteadofFPAandoccasionallydemandinclusionofwarrisksorotherspecialrisksininsurancecoverage.TherearetimeswhenthebuyersinsomeAsiancountriesintendtobetterprotecthiscostandprofit,theyrequiretheinsuredvaluetobe150%oranywheremorethan110%oftheinvoicevalue.Howtocopewithsuchasituation?InviewofthelimitedprotectionofferedbyFPAterms,itisdeemednecessarythattheCIFbuyer,whenthecontractismade,requiresthesellertogetmoreextensivecover;butitmustbemadeclearinthecontractthattheadditionalexpensesthusincurredshallbeforthebuyer’saccount.(2)UnderCIFterms,itistheseller’sresponsibilitytobookshippingspaceinthecaseofrelativelysmallconsignment,ie.lessthanashipload,ortocharteratrampvesselinthecaseofshiploadcargo,andpaythefreightuptodestination.Ifthebuyerrequeststhesellertoshiphisgoodsonboardofadesignatedvesselofcertaintype,nationality,class,ageetc,howdoeshecopewiththisrequest?Fromthelegalpointofview,thesellerhastherighttodeclinethebuyer’srequestassuch.Notwithstandingthat,thesellermayaccommodatethebuyer’srequestprovidedthatthisarrangementisentirelyfeasiblefromtheseller’spointofviewanddoesnotaddanythingtohistransportationcost.Thesellermaydowelltoadvisethebuyerofthedateofshipment,ie.tosendshippingadvicetohiminorderforthebuyertomakearrangementsfordischarge.(3)UnderCIFterms,thesellershallpaythefreight,butwhoseresponsibilityitistopayunloadingexpensesattheportofdestinationistobedecidedaccordingtothecustomoftheport.Atsomeports,itistheresponsibilityoftheshipownertopayunloadingexpenses;atsomeothersthesellerhastopaytheadditionalexpensesincurredformovingthecargofromshiptowharfgodownandfromgodowntotrucks;butsometimesthesituationisquitedifferent,thoseexpensesshouldbebornebythebuyeralone.Therefore,itisequivocalwhichpartyshallpaytheunloadingexpenseunderCIFtermsthesellerorthebuyer.Forthisreason,thefollowingCIFvariantsareintroducedtoclarifythedoubtfulpoint:(a)CIFLinertermsTheunloadingexpenseswillbefortheaccountofthepartywhopaysthefreight,ie.thesellerunderCIFterms.(b)CIFShip’sHoldThebuyeristopayallunloadingexpenseswhenthegoodsaredischargedfromtheship’sholdtothewharf.TheseCIFvariantsclarifythedivisionofexpensesbetweenbuyerandseller.TheriskspassfromsellertobuyerinthesamemannerasunderCIFterms,ie.atthetimewhenthegoodshaveeffectivelypassedtheship’srail.CFR…PortofDestinationTheonlydifferencebetweenCIFandCFRliesinthefactthatunderCFRtermsthebuyerisresponsibleforthepaymentofinsurancepremiumandofcourse,forarrangingthenecessarycoveragewithaninsurancecompanyinthebuyer’scountrywhereasunderCIFterms,thebuyerisnot.Itdoesnotconcerntheseller,however,thesellermustseetoitthatshippingadviceshallbesentintimesoastoenablethebuyertoproceedwithinsurancearrangement.Incasethesellerfailstosendtheshippingadviceduetooversi