2000-2012年考研英语真题无答案打印版1

2012年考研英语试题SectionIUseofEnglishDirections:Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissuerecently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat_3_thecourt'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartialjudgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself_6_tothecodeofconductthat_7_totherestofthefederaljudiciary.Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla_9_betweenthecourtandpolitics.TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_1l_theywouldbefreeto_12_thoseinpowerandhavenoneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely_14_.Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17_asunjust.Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymakingthemselves_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparatefrompoliticsand,_20_,convincingaslaw.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize[A]whenfB]lest[C]before[D]unless[A]restored[B]weakened[CJestablished[D]eliminated[A]challenged[BJcompromised[C]suspected[D]accepted[AJadvanced[BJcaught[CJbound[DJfounded[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies[A]evade[B]raise[Cldeny[DIsettle[A]line[B]bairier[C]similarity[D]conflict[A]by[BJas[C]though[DJtowards[A]so[BJsince[C]provided[DJthough[AJserve[BJsatisfy[CJupset[DJreplace[Alconfirm[B]express[C]cultivate[DIoffer[Alguarded[B]followed[C]studied[D]tied[Alconcepts[B]theories[C]divisions[D]conceptions[AJexcludes[BJquestions[CJshapes[DJcontrols[AJdismissed[BJreleased[CJranked[DJdistorted[AJsuppress[BJexploit[CJaddress[DJignore[AJaccessible[B]amiable[CJagreeable[D]accountable[AJbyallmesns[BJatallcosts[CJinaword[D]asaresultSectionIIReadingComprehensionPartADirections:Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)Text1Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblytheword.Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocialcureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology."Daretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!"pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegativeones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It'sliketheteacherwhobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesasasupplementtothesocialcureastimulustogroupdynamicsanobstacletoschoolprogressacauseofundesirablebehaviorsRosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshouldrecruitprofessionaladvertisersIB]learnfromadvertisers'experiencestayawayfromcommercialadvertisersrecognizethelimitationsofadvertisementsIntheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto[AJadequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactorseffectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure[Clillustratethefunctionsofstatefunding[DIproducealong-lastingsocialeffectParagraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviorsisharmfultoournetworksoffriendswillmisleadbehavioralstudies[CloccurswithoutourrealizingitcanproducenegativehealthhabitsTheauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureisharmfuldesirableprofoundquestionableText2Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,amajorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestrictnuclearregulations.Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallengetheconstitutionalityofVermont'srulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofadesperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It'sastunningmove.Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationboughtVermont'sonlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextensionoftheplant'slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.Then,too,thecompanywentalong.EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn'tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy'smanagement-especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension.Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth.Thephrase“renegingon”(Line3.para.l)isclosestinmeaningto[AJcondemning.fBlreaffirming.dishonoring.securing.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,EntergyintendedtoobtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithitsmanagerialpractices.IB]technicalinnovativeness.financialgoals.businessvisionIntheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltestEntergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.thematureofstates'patchworkregulations.thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.ItcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthatEntergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.Vermont'sreputationmightbedamaged.Text3Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,andself-deceptionabound.Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similartonewlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibilityprocess,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthecommunity,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividual'sdiscoveryclaimintothecommunity'scrediblediscovery.Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendstofocusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequentlyprovokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyioncedescribeddiscoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought."Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.Intheend,credibility"happens"toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind."Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoningandeachother'sconceptionsofreason."Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.fBlmisconceptionanddeceptiveness.[Cllogicalityandobjectivity.[D]systematicnessandregularity.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequiresstrictinspection.sharedefforts.[Clindividualwisdom.[Dlpersistentinnovation..Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.[BJhasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.[Clhasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists..AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.[Bjdiscoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.[DJscientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.[ClEvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.[DJChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.Text4IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivilservant.WhenHoffa'srFeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmericangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009thenumberofunionistsinAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions'thriving.First,theycanshutthingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolledbyunions.Theteachers'unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly“backloaded"public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers'unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofcultureinWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers'fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.ItcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthatTeamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.[DJthegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.[DJPublic-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris[A]illegallysecured.fBlindirectlyaugmented.[Clexcessivelyincreased.[D]fairlyadjusted.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.[Clmaybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.[D]aredominantinthegovernment.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof[A]disapproval.[BJappreciation.[Cltolerance.[Djindifference.PartBDirections:Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof"stickiness"-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.Applicationslike/r/,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.[FJOnereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.PartCDirections:ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksatheoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.ltisbecominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggestedthathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraintsGrayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky'sgrammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversalsSectionIIIWritingPartADirections:Someinternationalsstudentsarecomingtoyouruniversity.WritethemanemailinthenameoftheStudents'Uniontoextendyourwelcomeandprovidesomesuggestionsfortheircampuslifehere.Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyournameattheendoftheletter.Use“LiMingMinstead.Donotwritetheaddress(10points)PartBDirections:writeanessayof160-200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawing.Inyouressayyoushoulddescribethedrawingbrieflyexplainitsintendedmeaning,andgiveyourcommentsYoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.(20points)2011年考研英语一真题SectionIUseofEnglishDirections:AncientGreekphilosopherAristotleviewedlaughteras“abodilyexerciseprecioustohealth.^^