新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考

《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版

练习题

参照答案Chapter1IntroductionHowdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.答：Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,thelinguistshastocollectandobservelanguagefactsfirst,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Thehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation,thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?答：Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsare:phonetics:itstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;phonology:itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;morphology:itstudiesthewayinwhichlinguisticsymbolsrepresentingsoundsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords;syntax:itstudiestheruleswhichgovernhowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages;semantics:itstudiesmeaningconveyedbylanguage;pragmatics:itstudiesthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?答：Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modemlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?答：Inmodemlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Becausepeoplebelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modemlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revisedrecord”ofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?答：Saussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?答：Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Fourth,languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?答：Themainfeaturesofhumanlanguagearetermeddesignfeatures.Theyinclude:1)ArbitrarinessLanguageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat“displacement”means.CulturaltransmissionWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.答：Threemainfunctionsareoftenrecognizedoflanguage:thedescriptivefunction,theexpressivefunction,andthesocialfunction.Thedescriptivefunctionisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.Forexample:“Chinaisalargecountrywithalonghistory.”Theexpressivefunctionsuppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Forexample:“Iwillgoneverwindow-shoppingwithher.”Thesocialfunctionservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople..Forexample:“Weareyourfirmsupporters.”Chapter2SpeechSoundsWhatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?答：Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismoreprimarythanwriting,forreasons,pleaserefertotheanswertothefifthprobleminthelastchapter.2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?答：VoicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsandafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?答：Thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesounds[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel*fi:l+,build*bild+,andhealth*helθ+.Asamatteroffact,thesound*l+inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdiffersslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledadear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear*1+asin“leafIt”is.calleddark[?]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[?]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination*helθ+,thesound*l+isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound*θ+,itspronunciasomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[、]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[ph?t]andspitistranscribedas[sp?t].4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?答：Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,itcanbeclassifiedintofollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velarandglottal.5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?答：Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunfoundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[a:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.A.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:voicedpalatalaffricatevoicelesslabiodentalfricativevoicedalveolarstopfront,close,shortback,semi-open,longvoicelessbilabialstop1)[t]2)[l]3)[?]4)[w]5)[?]6)[?]答：A.(1)[?](2)[f](3)[d](4)[?](5)[?:](6)[p]B.(1)voicelessalveolarstop(2)voicedalveolarliquid(3)voicelesspalatalaffricate(4)voicedbilabialglide(5)back,close,short(6)front,openHowdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[l]and[?],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?答：(1)Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage––thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Aphonologistwillbemoreinterestedinit.Becauseoneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindoutrulethatgovernsthedistributionof[l]and[?],[ph]and[p].Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?答：Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/l/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[?],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.答：Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[lbik][lkbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copyinga”featureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppytendency”maybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtomaadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet–indiscreet,correct–incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[?];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound*n+,weare“copying”afeatureoftheconsonantt.thatfollowsiDeletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign–signature,resign–resignation,phlegmphlegmatic,paradigm–paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeleted

–accordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?答：Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanoun,toaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepitchvariationswhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Chapter3Morphology1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:a.microfilee.telecommunicationb.bedraggledf.forefatherc.announcementg.psychophysicsd.predigestionh.mechanist答：a.micro+fileb.be+draggle+edc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+ione.tele+communicate+ionf.fore+fatherg.psycho+physicsh.mechan+istThinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.suffix:-ormeaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:actor,“onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc.”translator,whotranslates”答：(1)suffix:-ablemeaning:somethingcanbedoneorispossiblestemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:acceptable,“canbeaccepted”respectable,“canberespected”(2)suffix:-lymeaning:functionalstemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:freely.“adverbialformof‘free’”quickly,“adverbialformof'quick'”.(3)suffix:-eemeaning:thepersonreceivingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbsexamples:employee,“onewhoworksinacompany”interviewee,“whooneisinterviewed”Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:a-prefix:a-meaning:“without;not”stemtype:addedtoadjectivesexamples:asymmetric,“lackingsymmetry”asexual,“withoutsexorsexorgans”答：(1)prefix:dis-meaning:showinganoppositestemtype:addedtoverbsornounsexamples:disapprove,“donotapprove”dishonesty,“lackofhonesty”.(2)prefix:anti-meaning:against,opposedtostemtype:addedtonounsoradjectivesexamples:antinuclear,“opposingtheuseofatomicweaponsandpower”antisocial,“opposedorharmfultothelawsandcustomsofanorganizedcommunity.”(3)prefix:counter-meaning:theoppositeofstemtype:addedtonounsoradjectives.examples:counterproductive,“producingresultsoppositetothoseintended”counteract,“actagainstandreducetheforceoreffectof(sth.)”4.Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.答：(1)thethirdpersonsingularthepasttensethepresentperfectthepresentprogressiveDeterminewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtooneanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivation.a)go,goes,going,goneb)discover,discovery,discoverer,discoverable,discoverabilityc)inventor,inventor’s,inventors,inventors’d)democracy,democrat,democratic,democratize答：(略)Thefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffixes.Underlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffixes.Thefarmer’scowsescaped.b)Itwasraining.Thosesocksareinexpensive.Jimneedsthenewercopy.e)Thestrongestrowercontinued.Shequicklyclosedthebook.Thealphabetizationwentwell.答：(略)Chapter4Syntax1.Whatissyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.Whatisphrasestructurerule?Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelements(i.e.specifiers,heads,andcomplements)thatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...WecanformulateasinglegeneralphrasalstructuralruleinwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.TheXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)3.Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'scategory?Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.Themeaningsassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways.Thepropertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedbyadjectives.Forexample,whenwesaythatprettylady,weareattributingtheproperty‘prettyto’theladydesignatedbythenoun.Similarly,thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstatesdesignatedbyverbscantypicallybedenotedbyadverbs.Forexample,inJennyleftquietlytheadverbquietlyindicatesthemannerofJenny'sleaving.Thesecondcriteriontodetermineaword'scategoryisinflection.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Suchnounsasboyanddesktakethepluralaffix-s.Verbssuchasworkandhelptakepasttenseaffix-edandprogressiveaffix-ing.Andadjectiveslikequietandclevertakecomparativeaffix-erandsuperlativeaffix-est.Althoughinflectionisveryhelpfulindeterminingaword'scategory,itdoesnotalwayssuffice.Somewordsdonottakeinflections.Forexample,nounslikemoisture,fog,donotusuallytakepluralsuffix-sandadjectiveslikefrequent,intelligentdonottakecomparativeandsuperlativeaffixes-erand-est.Thelastandmorereliablecriterionofdeterminingaword'scategoryisitsdistribution.Thatiswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.Forexample,nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard,verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo,andadjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright.Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.4.Whatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesithave?Thestructureformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctioniscalledcoordinatestructures.Ithas(或写Conjunctionexhibits)fourimportantproperties:Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementplay?Aphraseusuallycontainsthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Specifierhasbothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,ithelpstomakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,ittypicallymarksaphraseboundary.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.6.Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structuresecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).

).The（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.DetANVPDetNAdvb)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.DetNAdvVPDetNc)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools.DetANAuxVDetNPDetNd)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.DetNVDegAThefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.richinmineralsXP(AP)→head(rich)A+complement(inminerals)PPb)oftenreaddetectivestoriesXP(VP)→specifier(often)Qual+head(read)V+complement(detectivestories)NPc)theargumentagainsttheproposalsXP(NP)→specifier(the)Det+head(argument)N+complement(againsttheproposals)PPd)alreadyabovethewindowXP(VP)→specifier(already)Deg+head(above)P+complement(thewindow)NPd)Theapplemighthittheman.S→NP(Theapple)+Infl(might)+VP(hittheman)Heoftenreadsdetectivestories.S→NP(He)+VP(oftenreadsdetectivestories)Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.Themanexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday.Awoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedinthestorm.10.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.Helenputonherclothesandwentout.Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.YouknowthatIhatewar.GerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.HerbertboughtahousethatshelovedThegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.13.Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）Wouldyoucometomorrow?youwouldcometomorrowWhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?HelenbroughtwhattothepartyWhobrokethewindow?whobrokethewindowChapter5Semantics1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?答：(1)ThenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Theconceptualistviewhasbeenheldbysomephilosophersandlinguistsfromancienttimes.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Thecontextualistviewheldthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context––elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.TherepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth,famousBritishlinguist.(4)Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.closetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.2.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?答：Themajortypesofsynonymsaredialectalsynonyms,stylisticsynonyms,emotiveevaluativesynonyms,collocationalsynonyms,andsemanticallydifferentsynonyms.Examples（略）3.Explainwithexamples“homonymy”,“polysemy”,and“hyponymy”.答：(1)Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethe

or

”

Thistheory,somesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.TherearemanypolysemicwordsinEnglish,Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.Hyponymyisarelationofinclusion;intermsofmeaning,thesuperordinateincludesallitshyponyms.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?north/southvacant/occupiedliterate/illiterateabove/belowdoctor/patientwide/narrowpoor/richfather/daughter答：Theycanbegradableantonyms,complementaryantonymsandrelationaloppositeGradableantonyms:literate/illiteratewide/narrowpoor/richComplementaryantonyms:vacant/occupiedRelationalopposite:north/south,doctor/patient,father/daughter,above/below5.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:Tom'swifeispregnant.Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced'Tomhasawife.Mysisterisamarriedwoman.Helikesseafood,Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby.Helikescrabs.Theyhaveachild.答：

“

Tom'swifeispregnant

”

presupposes

“

Tomhasawife.

”“Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced”presupposes“Mysisterisamarriedwoman.“Helikesseafood”isentailedby“Helikescrabs.”“Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby”presupposes“Theyhaveachild.6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?

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”答：Theybothbaseonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?答：Grammaticalityreferstothegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Theviolationoftheselectionalrestrictions,i.e.,constrainsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers,mightmakeagrammaticallymeaningless.8.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:Themansellsice-cream.Isthebabysleeping?Itissnowing.Thetreegrowswell.答：Themansellsice-cream.MAN,ICE-CREAM(SELL)Isthebabysleeping?BABY(SLEEP)Itissnowing.(SNOW)Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Chapter6PRAGMATICS1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?答：Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontext.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inordertohaveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethecontextintotheirconsiderationsoastoeffecttherightmeaningandintention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetweenthemliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,whilesemanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextintoconsiderationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyoflinguisticcommunication?答：Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgen