第二语言学习策略

1、第二语言学习策略第1页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日An overview of language learning strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. Background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarises key reflections and questio

2、ns for future research on this aspect of L2/FL education. 第2页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日A gradual but significant shift over the last few decades resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change reflected in language education and applied

3、linguistics: the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner and annual Learners Conferences held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on the learner-centred curriculum (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and learner-centredness as language

4、education (Tudor, 1996). 第3页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Learning Strategiesearly definitions reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning s

5、trategies (LS) broadly as behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning which are intended to influence the learners encoding process (p. 315). 第4页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence

6、 how the learner processes information (p. 11). Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. 第5页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal

7、 learning environments. 第6页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Language Learning Strategies DefinedWithin L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the

8、 target language - to incoporate these into ones interlanguage competence (p. 67). Rubin (1987) LS are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly (p. 22). 第7页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日OMalley and Chamot (1990) def

9、ined LS as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1). (Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS i.e., In learning ESL, Trang (1) watches U.S. TV soap operas, (2) guesses the meaning of new expr

10、essions(3) predicting what will come next 第8页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日.language learning strageties specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, st

11、orage, retrieval, or use of the new language. 第9页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Strategies are tools for (4) the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18).From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the prod

12、uct of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), to a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. 第10页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learners natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing

13、, and retaining new information and skills (Reid, 1995, p. viii), there is also obvious relationship betweenlanguage learning style and usual or preferred language learning strategies. 第11页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日What are the Characteristics of LLS?Although the terminology is not always uniform,

14、 with some writers using the terms learner strategies (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMalley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & OMalley, 1994), and still others language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996),第12页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日there are a number of basic characteristics i

15、n the generally accepted view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may

16、bevisible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). 第13页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note (5)a des

17、ire for control and autonomy of learningCohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. 第14页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, (P

18、earson (1988) and Skehan (1989). 第15页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Oxfords twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS: (6) allow learners to become more self-directed (7) expand the role of language teachers (8) are problem-oriented (9) involve many aspect

19、s, not just the cognitive (10) can be taught (11) are flexible (12) are influenced by a variety of factors.(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)第16页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?Within communicative approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to

20、develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. 第17页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日An important distinction exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously i

21、n order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). 第18页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2

22、 teachers who aim to help develop their students communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS .are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential f

23、or developing communicative competence (p. 1). 第19页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日In addition to developing students communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on good language lea

24、rners by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring ones L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with

25、 native speakers. 第20页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日OMalley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Grahams (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them

26、 to develop and use them. 第21页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Skehan (1989) cautionsthere is always the possibility that the good language learning strategies.are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful (p. 76). Vann and Abraham (1990) found evidence thatboth

27、good and unsuccessful language learners can be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners apparently.lacked.what are often called metacognitive strategies.which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear the necessary st

28、rategies for its completion (p. 192). 第22页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日A number and range of LLS are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning the L2/FL and in becoming good language learners. 第23页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日What Kinds of LLS Are There?There are literally hu

29、ndreds of different, yet often interrelated, LLS. Oxford has developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS, which directly involve the subject matter, i.e. the L2 or FL, andindirect LLS, which do not directly involve the subject matter

30、 itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless (p. 71). 第24页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Second, each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies aid in entering information into long-term

31、memory and retrieving information when needed for communication. Cognitive LLS are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language. Compensation strategies are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language“ (Oxford, 1990b, p

32、. 71). 第25页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Oxford (1990a, 1990b) also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strageties help learners exercise executive control through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning. Affective LLS enable learners to control feelings, moti

33、vations, and attitudes related to language learning. Finally, social strategies facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). 第26页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日These six main types of LLS (Oxford 1990a, pp. 18-21), are further divided into 19 strategy group

34、s and 62 subsets. for example, the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990a):asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathising with others (p. 21). General examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows:

35、Asking questions Asking for clarification or verification Asking for correctionCo-operating with others Co-operating with peers Co-operating with proficient users of the new languageEmpathising with others Developing cultural understanding Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990

36、a, p. 21)第27页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日In asking questions, for example, students might ask something specific like Do you mean.? or Did you say that.? in order to clarify or verify what they think they have heard or understood. 第28页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日What is important to note here is the

37、 way LLS are interconnected, both direct and indirect, and the support they can provide one to the other (see Oxford, 1990a, pp. 14-16). In the above illustration of social LLS, for example, a student might ask the questions above of his or her peers, thereby co-operating with others, and in respons

38、e to the answer he or she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL cultural understanding or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow students, the teacher, or those in the L2/FL culture. 第29页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日What is learned from this experience might then be

39、 supported when the same student uses a direct, cognitive strategy such as practising to repeat what he or she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural conversation with someone in the target L2/FL. 第30页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日USING LLS IN THE CLASSROOMContexts and Classes for

40、 LLS TrainingLLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself.第31页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日In this c

41、ase, texts such as Ellis and Sinclairs (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training or Rubin and Thompsons (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner might be used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning process, the nature of language and communic

42、ation, what language learning resources are available to them, andwhat specific LLS they might use in order to improve their own vocabulary use, grammar knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. 第32页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Three step approach to implementing LLS t

43、raining in the classroomStep 1: Study Your Teaching ContextAt first, it is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. it is crucial to know something about the learners, their interests, motivations, lear

44、ning styles, etc. 第33页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日By observing their behaviour in class, for example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction,? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact

45、outside of class with proficient L2/FL users? 第34页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning. 第35页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Sharkey (1994/19

46、95), for instance, asks students to complete statements such as In this class I want to/will/wont., My favourite/least favourite kinds of class activities are., I am studying English because., etc. (Sharkey, 1994/1995, p. 19). 第36页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Talking to students informally before or

47、after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about ones students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught. 第37页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Beyond the students, however, one

48、s teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analysed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Scarcella and Oxfords (1992) Tapestry textbook series, for example, incorporates learning strategy boxes which highlight LL

49、S and encourage students to use them in L2/FL tasks or skills. 第38页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日One example from a conversation text in the series states: Managing Your Learning: Working with other language learners improves your listening and speaking skills (Earle-Carlin & Proctor, 1996, p. 8).EFL

50、writing texts may have brief sections onmaking ones referents clear, outlining, and choosing the right vocabulary, all of which may be modelled and used in LLS training in composition course. 第39页，共45页，2022年，5月20日，21点52分，星期日Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS trai