国际经济学萨尔瓦多原版课件

1、Dale R. DeBoerUniversity of Colorado, Colorado Springs5 - 1An Introduction to International EconomicsChapter 5: Trade Restrictions: TariffsDominick SalvatoreJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.5 - 2Movements away from free tradeWhile it is generally accepted that free trade best enhances societal welfare, comple

2、te free trade is seldom practiced.This situation generates two questionsWhy is complete free trade seldom practiced?What are the effects of deviating from free trade?This chapter considers the second question by considering the effects of employing one common tool of deviating from free trade the ta

3、riff.5 - 3Types of tariffsImport vs. export tariffsAn import tariff is a tax (or duty) on imported goods or services. This is the most common form of tariff.An export tariff is a tax on exported goods or services.This is rarely seen in developed countries but is occasionally practiced in developing

4、countries to generate government revenue.5 - 4Types of tariffsImport vs. export tariffsAd valorem tariffA fixed percentage tax on the traded commodity.5 - 5Types of tariffsImport vs. export tariffsAd valorem tariffSpecific tariffA fixed sum tax per unit of a traded commodity.5 - 6Types of tariffsImp

5、ort vs. export tariffsAd valorem tariffSpecific tariffA compound tariffA combination of an ad valorem and specific tariff.5 - 7Types of tariffsImport vs. export tariffsAd valorem tariffSpecific tariffA compound tariffTariff ratesThe U.S. International Trade Commission provides a searchable index of

6、tariff rates.WWW link5 - 8Small vs. largeThe implications of interfering with trade differ depending on the nature of the country.The key distinction is between whether the country is “small” or “large.”5 - 9Small vs. largeThe implications of interfering with trade differ depending on the nature of

7、the country.A “small” country is one where changes in its domestic market do not alter the international price of the commodity.In the case of tariff, this means that the imposition of a tariff does not alter the international price.In other words, the country acts as a “price-taker” in the internat

8、ional market.5 - 10Small vs. largeThe implications of interfering with trade differ depending on the nature of the country.A “small” country is one where changes in its domestic market do not alter the international price of the commodity.A “large” country is one where changes in its domestic market

9、 do alter the international price of the commodity.In the case of a tariff, this means that the imposition of a tariff does alter the international price.5 - 11Effects of a tariff: small countryThe effects of a tariff are easily seen in a market supply and demand diagram.In this market, the autarky

10、equilibrium occurs a price of $50 and quantity of 50.5 - 12Effects of a tariff: small countryIn this market, if the international price is $20, the country will be an importer of the item.Domestic production will fall from 50 to 20.Domestic consumption will rise from 50 to 80.These changes generate

11、imports of 60 units.5 - 13Effects of a tariff: small countryIf a 50% ad valorem tariff is placed on imports, the domestic price rises from $20 (the international price) to the tariff price of $30.Domestic production increases from 20 to 30.Domestic consumption falls from 80 to 70.Imports fall to 40.

12、5 - 14Effects of a tariff: small countryThe final effect is that the government will begin collecting tariff revenue in this market.The amount of the revenue is $10 x 40 = $400 per unit of time.5 - 15Welfare effects: small countryTo show the welfare changes from the tariff the concepts of consumer a

13、nd producer surplus must be considered.Consumer surplus is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay for a specific amount of a commodity and what they actually pay for it.Graphically, consumer surplus is the area under the demand curve and above the price paid on every unit purchased

14、.5 - 16Welfare effects: small countryConsumer surplus is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay for a specific amount of a commodity and what they actually pay for it.Producer surplus is the extra payment received by producers above what needed to have been paid to cause them to pr

15、oduce the commodity.Graphically, producer surplus is the area below the price received and above the supply curve on every unit sold.5 - 17Welfare effects: small countryConsumer surplus at autarky is given by the indicated region.When the nation moves to free trade this surplus increases.The imposit

16、ion of a tariff reduces this surplus by the difference between the international and the tariff price.5 - 18Welfare effects: small countryProducer surplus at autarky is given by the shaded region.Opening the economy to free trade reduces the surplus to the smaller shaded region.Imposing a tariff inc

17、reases the producer surplus.5 - 19Welfare effects: small countryThe losses and gains from the imposition of a tariff exist in the shaded region.The entire region is lost consumer surplus.The dollar value of this region is ($10 x 70) + ( x $10 x 10) or $750. 5 - 20Welfare effects: small countryThe en

18、tire region is lost consumer surplus.Of this, the portion above the supply curve is gained by producers.The dollar value of this region is ($10 x 20) + ( x $10 x 10) or $250.5 - 21Welfare effects: small countryThe entire region is lost consumer surplus.Of this, the portion above the supply curve is

19、gained by producers.The rectangular area is gained by the government as tariff revenue.The dollar value of this region is $10 x 40 or $400.5 - 22Welfare effects: small countryThis leaves a net welfare loss to society of the two triangular shaded regions.These regions are known as the deadweight loss

20、 of a tariff. These have a dollar value of $750 - $250 (gained by producers) - $400 (gained by the government) or $100.5 - 23Effects of a tariff: large countryThe effects of a tariff on a large country differ from that in a small country because the imposition of a tariff results in a fall in import

21、 demand that lowers the international price.This is known is as the terms of trade effect.5 - 24Effects of a tariff: large countryIn this case, the 50% tariff results in a drop of the international price from $20 to $15.This takes the tariff price to $22.50 per unit. The effects of this change are m

22、ore clearly seen through a narrowing of focus in the graph.5 - 25Effects of a tariff: large countryWith the tariff and improvement in the terms of trade, production rises from 20 to 22.5 units.Consumption falls from 80 to 77.5 units.Imports fall from 60 to 55 units.5 - 26Welfare effects: large count

23、ryConsumer surplus declines by the shaded region.This has a dollar value of ($2.50 x 77.5) + ( x $2.50 x 2.5) = $196.8755 - 27Welfare effects: large countryConsumer surplus declines by the shaded region.Producer surplus increases by the shaded region offsetting part of the consumer loss.This has a d

24、ollar value of ($2.50 x 20) + ( x $2.50 x 2.5) = $53.1255 - 28Welfare effects: large countryConsumer surplus declines by the shaded region.Producer surplus increases by the shaded region offsetting part of the consumer loss.Government revenue increases by $10 x 75 or $750.5 - 29Welfare effects: larg

25、e countryThe net effect is a welfare gain.Consumer surplus falls by $196.875Producer surplus rises by $53.125Government revenue increases by $750This generates a net gain of $500 for this case.5 - 30Welfare effects: large countryThis result arises as the improvement in the terms of trade more than o

26、ffsets the potential deadweight loss of the tariff.Welfare lostWelfare gained5 - 31Optimum tariffThe previous example demonstrates that it is possible for the imposition of a tariff in a large county to improve societal welfare.An optimal tariff is the tariff rate that maximizes the benefit resultin

27、g from the imposition of a tariff.The gain comes from the improvement in the terms of trade.Positive welfare gains are always possible from tariff imposition in large countries.5 - 32A concern about the optimal tariffBy itself, the existence of an optimum tariff appears to be a strong argument for i

28、nterfering with free trade.It is important to note that the positive welfare gains exist only if no retaliation in other markets occurs following the imposition of a tariff.History does not support the no retaliation assumption.5 - 33Nominal tariffs vs. effective protectionThe nominal tariff is the

29、percentage increase in the price of the final commodity.A 50% ad valorem tariff raises the price of the commodity by 50% generating a 50% nominal tariff.5 - 34Nominal tariffs vs. effective protectionThe nominal tariff is the percentage increase in the price of the final commodity.The effective rate

30、of protection is calculated on the increase in domestic value added offered by tariff protection.The effective rate of protection offers a better measure of the protection offered producers as it takes into account the cost to producers of tariffs on input markets.5 - 35Examples of effective protect

31、ionSuppose a product sells for $10,000 but has input costs of $5,000 per unit.In this case, its value added is $5,000.The imposition of a 10% ad valorem tariff raises the sales price from $10,000 to $11,000.5 - 36Examples of effective protectionThe imposition of a 10% ad valorem tariff raises the sales price from $10,000 to $11,000.This raises the value added from $5,000 to $6,000 and offers an effective rate of protection of 20%.$1,000