英语写作段落的扩展课件

1、A Basic Course Developing ParagraphsChapter 4What is a paragraph like? A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay; it is like a mini-essay & therefore should be unified, coherent, and well-developed. A paragraph is unified when all

2、 the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic. When the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally & smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another.Length of P

3、aragraphs Paragraphs vary in length. Experienced writers usually try to vary the length of their paragraphs so as to avoid monotony. The length of a paragraph depends on its topic, its position in the essay and its role in the development of the thesis statement. A long paragraph expresses a complex

4、 idea while a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.Unity: concerned with its content; all the sentences in the para. lead to one central theme which is usu. summarized in what is called the topic sentence.Coherence: concerned with its form or its organization; all

5、the sentences should be arranged in a clear, logical order & the transitions should be smooth and natural.Transitions.Qualities of Effective ParagraphsWays of Producing a Fluent Para. Using parallel structures; Repeating words or words groups; Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;

6、 Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs; Using transitional expressionsFundamental Features of an Effective Paragraph a central idea supporting evidence close connection between the sentences Friend-type parents treat their children as friends. They a

7、re generous and wise. Like good friends, they discuss with their children the latest news, share their childrens many interests, and listen to their expression of emotion, whether it is anger, fear, joy or sorrow. Example 1Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence. Example 2 I really had a bad day yesterday.

8、 When I went to do some washing, I fell off on the wet floor and broke my glasses. After I hurried downstairs to take my bike only to find I had left my keys on the bedroom on the 7th floor.Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence. Pollution exists everywhere. People throw away much rubbish everyday, and mu

9、ch of it is made of plastic. Some factories send out heavy smoke in the air, and much waste into rivers, and some factories produce loud noise which drive people mad. Example 3Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence. On the second floor, there are two toilets and two balconies, and each of the four kids ha

10、s their own separate rooms on this floor. The Smiths often enjoy their meals in a big sitting room on the ground floor, and if the weather is fine, they might eat in the garden. Mr. Smith really has a big house.Example 4Topic Sentence: the last sentence. Sometimes, the topic of a para. is not stated

11、 but is implied in the content. The wind picks up and begins to hurl itself through those deserted streets. Signboards sway violently from side to side, seeming almost to want to go with the wind that blows them. Trees complain as the strong wind tears at their branches, causing them to bend and bow

12、 down. With the wind comes the rain, stinging anyone unfortunate enough not yet to have reached the safety of home. Topic: the scene of a violent storm Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it. Using a spell checker on a computer can be a great advantage for awriter. First, the wri

13、ter can check the spelling of many of the words in the paper. The spell checker tries to match the spelling of the word with a word in its dictionary. Many spell checkers have at least 100,000 words in their dictionaries. Second, the writer can ask the spell checker to suggest a spelling. If the wor

14、d is already spelledcorrectly, the writer can ask the program to ignore the suggestedspelling. If the word is misspelled, the writer can request that the program correct the error. Many writers rely on spell checkers toimprove the accuracy of their writing.1. What is the topic of the paragraph?2. Un

15、derline the topic sentence.3. Identify the words or phrases used to connect the sentences closely.Topic: the spell checker.Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence. Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it. Some people see things only in black and white. In thisexpression, black and white

16、represent opposite extremes, with nomiddle ground between them. Most issues in the world are not sosimple as black and white. One side of an issue is not all white right or good and the other side is not all black wrong orevil. In the real world there are many gray areas where black andwhite mix to

17、represent the true situation. from Words and Their Stories, VOA Special EnglishWhat is the topic of the paragraph?Underline the topic sentence.Identify the words or phrases used to connect the sentences closely. Topic: “black and white”.Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence. Planning a Paragraph First, t

18、hink of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence. Second, think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support the main idea. Work out an outline to put these details in good order. Ways of Developing a Paragraph 1. Development by Time in chronological

19、sequence = in order of time按时间先后顺序 things are mentioned according to the time when they happened, the first thing first & the last thing last the easiest & clearest way in telling a story or recounting an eventAnalysisSample (1) Main idea: Time expressions: Sample (2) Main idea:Time expressions:hist

20、ory of the railroad in the sixteenth century, by the early nineteenth century, in 1825, that same year, soon, during the 1830s, by the early 1840sthe writers first day at a new school as I mounted the stairs to my new classroom; then; during the recess; soon; at the end of the dayExpressions for Des

21、cribing Chronological Relationsnow, nowadays, when, before, after, while, duringbetween _and_, in _(year), since_later, earlier, formerlyat the turn of the century (decade)in the first half of the centuryin the 1990s, etc.at birth, in childhood, in infancy, in adolescence, as an adult, in adulthood,

22、 in old age, at deathsimultaneously, simultaneous with, at the same time as, the former,the latter, previous, previously, prior tofirst, second, etc.; in the first place, in the second place, etc.to begin with, next, then, subsequently, in the next placein conclusion, finally, lastly, in the end2. D

23、evelopment by Process explain how sth. is done according to its right sequence so as to avoid mistakes or failures usu. follow a chronological order and give a step-by-step description imperative sentences & sentences with the indefinite pron. you as the subject are often used in giving instructions

24、 use present tense if the instructions are still applicableSample 1 Analysis The paragraph describes step by step what things should be done before moving house and the present tense is used. However, one thing needs to be noticed in this paragraph: though many things should be done before moving ho

25、use, there seems to be no fix order in which one thing should bedone before another as long as they are all done. This is another way to develop a paragraph by process.There are only two transitional words in this paragraph:Before the men come to move the furniture,And lastly,Sample 2 1. Firstly, yo

26、u should. get regular exercise.2. Just before the exam, it helps to write short notes.3. On the day of the exam, dont do any studying.Can you find out those words and phrases that indicate the time sequence in the paragraph?Expressions for Writing Process Descriptions occur, before, at this point, b

27、ecome, until, at the same time, happen, while, after, grow, as, first,secondly,lastly take place, once, next, be carried out, then,change into, as soon as3. Development by Space First, choose a vantage point (有利位置), from which things are viewed. Second, state clearly the spatial relations (空间关系) amo

28、ng the objects being described. Third, concentrate on the best-known features of the place & ignores the minor ones. Lastly, describe the place in present tense.Sample 1: Oxford Analysis This paragraph is a description of the old university town, Oxford. In this paragraph, the author obviously stand

29、s at the center of Oxford and describes what surrounds him.Sample 2:The Terrace Park Analysis The paragraph gives you a clear and orderly picture of a pretty park. Where do you think the author stands? He must be by one side of the park, for that is where he starts his description. The most importan

30、t feature of the park is the pitches, and other features are the trees, the river, the flowers and other sports facilities. The present tense is used in the description.Expressions for Describing Spatial Relationships where, in which, to which, from which, etc.under, over, inside, beside, on top of,

31、 etc.along, through, as far as, etc.north, northern, south, southern, etc.to the left, to the right, to the north, etc.at the back, in front, in the middle, etc.adjacent to parallel rectangle corresponding to parallel to semicircle distance perpendicular to slope midpoint plane space interior opposi

32、te surface diagonal overlapping vertical edge pyramid horizontal limit exterior intersection4. Development by Example often used in explaining things make writing vivid, convincing & memorable make dry, abstract ideas or theories interesting, concrete & easy to understandAnalysis The first two sente

33、nces of this paragraph seem to present a rather mysterious theory. But when you read the example, you find it really interesting and may even start to believe that there is some truth in it. Examples help to explain what you want to say or prove. They make dry and abstract theories easy to understan

34、d. So when you write an explanatory paragraph, you should always think of good examples to illustrate your views and points. Using the phrase For example is a convenient way to start.Sample 1 Sample 2 Analysis In this paragraph, the author develops the controlling sentence with a series of facts inv

35、olving well-known people. These enable the writer to make abstract key idea “persistent investigation” concrete. They also add dramatic qualities that make the information interesting. We may notice that it is not always necessary to say “for example” or “for instance” when an example is given.Expre

36、ssions for Giving Specific Details for example as an illustration for instance in one instance for one thing in this instance to illustrate as an example in other words take _ for example as follows consider _ for example let me illustrate in practice let me cite as proof according to statistics acc

37、ording to statistical evidence5. Development byComparison & Contrast The method of comparison tends to focus on the similarities of the two objects being compared while the method of contrast emphasizes the differences between the two objects being contrasted. There are two major ways of organizing

38、paragraphs of comparison or contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison/contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the s

39、ame time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison/contrast. Analysis As you read the paragraph, you find that the author first mentions the disadvantages of living in a big city. Four major problems are listed to illustrate the stress urban people have to live wi

40、th daily. Then he begins to state the advantages of life in a country village by using the words In contrast. Four nice aspects of country life are mentioned, giving you a beautiful picture of the countryside. By contrast, you can immediately see the great differences between city life and country l

41、ife. And block contrast is adopted here.Sample 1 Analysis Unlike Sample 1, this paragraph focuses on the similarities of the two objects being compared, jogging and Taiji. Neither of the two needs many facilities or help from others. But for a wide range of people, both are very effective for keepin

42、g fit, and, therefore, very popular. And obviously, this paragraph is also developed by block comparison.Sample 2 Expressions for Making Comparison and ContrastTo Compare: similar to, at the same rate as, similarly, as, like, alike, just as, likewise, in like manner, correspond to, in the same way,

43、correspondingly, to have _ in common, resemble, common characteristics, etc., resemblance, to be parallel in _, almostthe same as, bothTo Contrast:differ from, unlike, however, in contrast to, still, inopposition to, nevertheless, on the contrary, otherwise, on the opposite side, even so, on the oth

44、er hand, less than, different from, more than, although,faster than, etc., while6. Development by Cause & EffectIn our daily conversation, questions with why are often asked and answered. This is called causal analysis (因果分析). There are two basic ways of organizing a paragraph developed by cause and

45、 effect: state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes; state a cause and then mention the effects.Sample 1 Analysis In this paragraph, the opening sentence points out what the record companies have been doing recently, and the rest of the paragraph tells us how this a

46、ffects the classical music industry in a negative way. Obviously the first sentence states the cause and then the rest of the paragraph states the effect. In the paragraph, though words like why or reason are not used, the cause-effect relationship is clearly implied in the content.Sample 2 Analysis

47、 This paragraph starts with the effect the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans. Then a series of causes are mentioned, such as Puerto Ricans who emigrate are poor, cheap apartments are hard to find, and cheap apartments are in the worse areas. After reading the paragraph, you can see

48、why the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans. Sample 1 is a good example of a cause paragraph. Please find out the expressions used for cause in the paragraph.Expressions for Discussing Cause and Effect so, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore, the result of, accordingly, because

49、 of, result in, for this reason, owing to, the effect of, since, the consequence of, hence, due to, have an effect on, because, the reason for,the cause of,It follows that as, now that, so that, seeing that, thanks to, for fear that,out of, such _that, owe _ to, so as _ to, classifications, make _ p

50、ossible, make it possible/ impossible for _ to do7. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. We classify many things. If we classify apples, for instance, we may classify them according to size into large ones and small ones; acco

51、rding to color into red ones and green ones; according to price into expensive ones and cheap ones; according to locality of growth into imported and domestically produced.When you face a number of ideas, people or objects, you may classify them into groups according to their similarities or differe

52、nces. By so doing, you give the reader a clear and in-depth view of them and sometimes, a feeling of order. Clear classification often helps the reader to see the different values of people or ideas. The most important thing for a good classification is to have a clear and proper principle of classi

53、fication.Parallelism of category is essential to a good classification. If we classify types of sports, we may speak of track and field events, swimming, ball games, etc. If we classify sports into jumping, ball games, running, floor exercise (自由体操) and backstroke (仰泳), we would violate parallelism,

54、 for ball games should be considered a general category, while jumping and running are subcategories of the track and field events, gymnastics is a general category, and floor exercise a particular form of it. In short, in a good classification the parts must be parallel, and they should add up to the whole subject. Sample 1 Analysis When you read this paragraph, you see clearly how classification is applied to describe the Indians. At first the word Indian i