戴炜栋语言学名词解释

1、戴炜栋语言学名词解释 / 20? Chapter 1: IntroductionLinguistics:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.general linguistics:The study of language as a whole.applied linguistics:the application of linguistic theories and principles to languageteaching, especially the teaching of fore

2、ign and second languages.prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for a correct and standard behaviorin using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the languag

3、e people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)synchronic study:| The description of language at some point of time in history is asynchronic study. (06C/ 04)diachronic study:J It s a historical study of language,it studies the historicaldevelopment of language over a period of time. (06C)

4、langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.parole : Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual petence : he ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language.(08F/09C)linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of al

5、l human languages,syntacticrules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language petence 有什么区另1J? ?performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.design

6、features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.arbitrariness:Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meaningsand sounds.(08C)productivity:Language is creative in that it makes possible t

7、he construction andinterpretation of new signals by it s users.duality (double articulation )- Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.displacement: 一 Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate

8、 situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)cultural transmission:The capacity for language is genetically based while the detailsof any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).Sociolinguistics : the study of all so

9、cial aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics : the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language municative competence: the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Phonologyphonic medium : Th

10、e limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds )phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world s languages. (06C)artic

11、ulatory phoneticsIt studies sounds from the speaker s point of view, i.e. howa speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.acoustic phonetics:It studies the physic

12、al properties of the stream of sounds which thespeaker issues.或者 It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cor

13、ds.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.broad transcription:The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequencesin written form.narrow transcription:The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show soundsin written form.diacr

14、itics:The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets,a system of symbols consistsof lettersand diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.aspiration:A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech s

15、ound.manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.place of articulation: The place where obstruction is created.consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstr

16、uction.monophthong : the individual vowel.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all pho

17、nes.phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it s representedby a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者 The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in di

18、fferent phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)phonology : I The description of sound systems of particularlanguages and how sounds formpatterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same envi

19、ronment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic plementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.minimal pair:two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same po

20、sition.sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.assimilation rule:The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.deletion rule:The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it

21、 is orthographicallyrepresented.suprasegmental features:The phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal onation

22、:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than theword in isolation, they re collectively known as intonation.nucleus:It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.minimal set: sound combinations which are identicalin form except for the initial consonanttogeth

23、er constitute a minimal set.Morphologymorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it constantly.(08C)closed class:A group of word

24、s whose membership is small and does not readily accept newmembers,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word,

25、 and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.the end of a word, and which usually changes the partsuffix: The affix, which is added to of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning

26、 of a word to its opposite.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. - ment.(07F)10. derivational morpheme:free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.inflectionalmorpheme

27、:|A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories,such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F)morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemescombine to form pound words: A combination of two or more words, whic

28、h functions as a single wordsinflection:the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modificationto indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation:Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are addedto an existing form

29、to create a word.Syntaxsyntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence

30、, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories:Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number ofclasses, called syntactic categories.major lexical category:one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be theheads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Pre

31、p.minor lexical category:one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies majorlexical category.phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category

32、:the phrase that is formed by combining with words of differentcategories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier:The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to

33、function as plement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates thearrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the to

34、p level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.XA theory:A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the formofcontext-free phrases structure rules.coor

35、dination: Somestructures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction (such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.) 15. subcategorization:The information about a word s complement is included in the headand termed suncategorization. (07C

36、)complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.(08F/09C)complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement plement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.mat

37、rix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.inversion

38、 : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overtInfl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make

39、transformation work.deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule inaccordance with the heads s subcategorization properties.(08F)surface structure : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which result from appropriate transformations. (05)Whq

40、uestion: In English, the kind of questions beginning with awh- word are calledwh question.Whmovement: The transformation that will movewh phrase from its position in deepstructure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is calledwhmovement.move 乙：a general rule for all th

41、e movement rules, where alpha is a cover term foeany element that can be moved from one place to another.补充universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第 Hstructural analysis:to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a l

42、anguage.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.syntagmatic relation:the relation between

43、any linguisticelementswhich are simultaneouslypresent in a structure.immidiate constituentanalysis (直接成分分析法)is the technique of breaking up sentencesinto word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.endocentric construction:( 向心结构或内心结构 )One construction

44、 whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.(03)exocentric construction(离心结构或夕卜心结构)the opposite of endocentricconstruction,refers to a group of syntactical

45、ly related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.Semanticssemantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Semantic triangle : It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning ofa word is not

46、 directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in thereal world, butthrough the mediation of concept of the mind.sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is thecollectionof all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized

47、.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.synonymy: Synonymy refers to the same

48、ness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.dialectal synonyms:synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.(08C)stylistic synonyms:synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.collocational synonyms:Synonyms that differ in their collloc

49、ation, i.e., in the wordsthey go together with.polysemy : he same word has more than one meaning.(it can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of the words).(05/03)homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. i

50、.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are plete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete ho

51、monyms.hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.superordinate:The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate ; andthe more specific words are called itshyponyms; hyponyms of the same superordinate arec

52、o-hyponyms to each other.co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and

53、young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one memberof the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relation

54、ship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husbandwife, fatherson, buysell, letrent, abovebelow.entailment:the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferredfrom the truth of the other. E.g.Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者 Enta

55、ilment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some

56、 more tea .componential analysis:an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaningcomponents or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as +human+male-adult.predication analysis:a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentencemeaning.(08C)predication:In the f

57、ramework of predication analysis, the basic units is calledpredication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.argument: An argument is a logical participan

58、t in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.selectional restriction:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed bythe rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.semantic features:The smallest

59、 units of meaning in a word, which may be described asa combination of semantic components. For example,womarhas the semantic features +human-male +adult. (04)presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action.(05)Pragmaticspragmatics: The study of how speakers use

60、s sentences to effect successful communication.context: It is generally considered as constitued by the knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features in isolation from context.utterance meanin