关于可靠电网的市场设计

1、PR E F A C EThis report has been produced by the IEA Clean Coal Centre and is based on a survey and analysis of published literature, and on information gathered in discussions with interested organisations and individuals. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledged. It should be understood that th

2、e views expressed in this report are our own, and are not necessarily shared by those who supplied the information, nor by our member organisations.The IEA Clean Coal Centre was established in 1975 and has contracting parties and sponsors from: Australia, China, the European Commission, Germany, Ind

3、ia, Italy, Japan, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Thailand, the UAE, the UK and the USA.The overall objective of the IEA Clean Coal Centre is to continue to provide our members, the IEA Working Party on Fossil Fuels and other interested parties with independent information and analysis on all coal-rel

4、ated trends compatible with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. We consider all aspects of coal production, transport, processing and utilisation, within the rationale for balancing security of supply, affordability and environmental issues. These include efficiency improvements, lowering greenhou

5、se and non-greenhouse gas emissions, reducing water stress, financial resourcing, market issues, technology development and deployment, ensuring poverty alleviation through universal access to electricity, sustainability, and social licence to operate. Our operating framework is designed to identify

6、 and publicise the best practice in every aspect of the coal production and utilisation chain, so helping to significantly reduce any unwanted impacts on health, the environment and climate, to ensure the wellbeing of societies worldwide.The IEA Clean Coal Centre is organised under the auspices of t

7、he International Energy Agency (IEA) but is functionally and legally autonomous. Views, findings and publications of the IEA Clean Coal Centre do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the IEA Secretariat or its individual member countries.Neither IEA Clean Coal Centre nor any of its emp

8、loyees nor any supporting country or organisation, nor any employee or contractor of IEA Clean Coal Centre, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclo

9、sed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately-owned rights.A BS T R A C TThe growing deployment of variable renewable energy presents a challenge for electricity market design for grids with liberalised markets. Lower operating hours and other pressures have led to rapid retirement of

10、 thermal plant in many regions, raising concerns over how to drive investment in a future grid which provides sufficient firm capacity to meet demand, as well as the essential attributes of a reliable grid. To ensure resource adequacy, many markets have employed a form of capacity mechanism, while o

11、thers have opted for an energy-only approach in which investment is driven by wholesale price signals alone. Meanwhile, compensation mechanisms for grid services such as inertia, frequency control, voltage control, and constraint management have also come under increased scrutiny, as the proportion

12、of thermal plant which has conventionally provided these services has declined. This report reviews how various liberalised markets have addressed these issues, with a focus on how different approaches are affecting the viability of coal plant. Finally, it considers some key markets in Asia which ar

13、e beginning to tackle the same challenges as they move towards less regulated models.A C R O N Y M S A N D A BBR E V I A T I O N SABTavailability-based tariffACalternating currentACEREuropean Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators AEMCAustralian Energy Market CommissionAEMOAustralian Energy

14、 Market Operator AERAustralian Energy RegulatorAGCautomatic generation control ASancillary servicesBMUbalancing mechanism unitBMWiBundesministerium fr Bildung und Forsehung (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy), GermanyBNetzABundesnetzagentur, Germany BSUoSbalancing services use of syst

15、em CCGTcombined cycle gas turbineCERCCentral Electricity Regulatory Commission, India CGScentral generating stationCONEcost of new entryCTcombustion turbineDCdirect currentDOEDepartment of Energy, USA DSRdemand side responseENTSO-EEuropean Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity ERC

16、OTEnergy Reliability Council of TexasEUEuropean UnionFCASfrequency control ancillary servicesFERCFederal Energy Regulatory Commission, USA FFRfast frequency responseFGDflue gas desulphurisationGBGreat BritainGFgovernor freeHVDChigh voltage direct current IPPindependent power producerIRMInstalled Res

17、erve Margin ISGSinter-state generating station ISOindependent system operatorLOLEloss of load expectationLFCload frequency controlMCPDMedium Combustion Plant Directive, EU MOPRMinimum Offer Price RuleNETLNational Energy Technology Laboratory, USANEGNational Energy GuaranteeNEMNational Electricity Ma

18、rket, AustraliaNERCNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation NTPCNational Thermal Power Corporation, India OCGTopen cycle gas turbinePFRprimary frequency responseRCOresource carve outRPMReliability Pricing ModelRTOregional transmission organisationRT SCEDreal-time security constrained economic

19、 dispatch SEBState Electricity BoardSOsystem operatorSTORshort-term operating reserveTCMtransmission constraint managementTDSOtransmission and distribution system operator TISTexas Interconnected SystemTSOtransmission system operatorVOLLvalue of lost loadVREvariable renewable energy (wind and solar

20、power)C O N T E N T STOC o 1-3 h z u HYPERLINK l _bookmark0 PREFACE 4 HYPERLINK l _bookmark1 ABSTRACT 5 HYPERLINK l _bookmark2 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 6 HYPERLINK l _bookmark3 CONTENTS 8 HYPERLINK l _bookmark4 LIST OF FIGURES 11 HYPERLINK l _bookmark5 LIST OF TABLES 13 HYPERLINK l _bookmark6 EXEC

21、UTIVE SUMMARY 14 HYPERLINK l _bookmark7 INTRODUCTION 17 HYPERLINK l _bookmark9 LIBERALISED ENERGY M ARKETS AND GRID RELI ABILITY ISSUES 20 HYPERLINK l _bookmark10 Background to energy markets 20 HYPERLINK l _bookmark11 Early development 20 HYPERLINK l _bookmark13 Market structures 21 HYPERLINK l _bo

22、okmark15 USA overview 24 HYPERLINK l _bookmark16 Electricity grid and market structure 24 HYPERLINK l _bookmark18 Status of coal power and grid reliability 25 HYPERLINK l _bookmark20 Europe overview 27 HYPERLINK l _bookmark21 Electricity grid and market structure 27 HYPERLINK l _bookmark23 Status of

23、 coal power and grid reliability 29 HYPERLINK l _bookmark25 Australia overview 31 HYPERLINK l _bookmark26 Electricity grid and market structure 31 HYPERLINK l _bookmark27 Status of coal power and grid reliability 31 HYPERLINK l _bookmark28 ENSURING RESOURCE AD EQUACY 34 HYPERLINK l _bookmark29 The m

24、issing money problem 34 HYPERLINK l _bookmark31 Overview of capacity market auctions 36 HYPERLINK l _bookmark33 The PJM Interconnection 39 HYPERLINK l _bookmark34 Overview 39 HYPERLINK l _bookmark35 Reliability Pricing Model (RPM) market structure 39 HYPERLINK l _bookmark37 Results and current trend

25、s 41 HYPERLINK l _bookmark40 Impact on coal plant viability 43 HYPERLINK l _bookmark42 Suspension and reform 44 HYPERLINK l _bookmark43 ERCOT 45 HYPERLINK l _bookmark44 Overview 45 HYPERLINK l _bookmark46 Market design 46 HYPERLINK l _bookmark48 Recent trends 48 HYPERLINK l _bookmark50 Germany 49 HY

26、PERLINK l _bookmark51 Overview 49 HYPERLINK l _bookmark52 Network Reserve 50 HYPERLINK l _bookmark54 Capacity Reserve 52 HYPERLINK l _bookmark55 Security Standby 53 HYPERLINK l _bookmark56 Grid stabilisation plants 53 HYPERLINK l _bookmark57 Great Britain 54 HYPERLINK l _bookmark58 Overview 54 HYPER

27、LINK l _bookmark59 Market structure 54 HYPERLINK l _bookmark61 Results 55 HYPERLINK l _bookmark64 Analysis and reform 58 HYPERLINK l _bookmark65 Tempus Energy challenge and suspension 59 HYPERLINK l _bookmark66 Supplemental Balancing Reserve 60 HYPERLINK l _bookmark67 Poland 60 HYPERLINK l _bookmark

28、68 Overview 60 HYPERLINK l _bookmark69 Market structure and comparison with GB mechanism 60 HYPERLINK l _bookmark70 Market results 61 HYPERLINK l _bookmark72 The EUs Winter Package and emission performance standard 62 HYPERLINK l _bookmark73 Challenge by Tempus Energy 63 HYPERLINK l _bookmark74 Aust

29、ralia 63 HYPERLINK l _bookmark75 Summary 64 HYPERLINK l _bookmark76 ANCILLARY SERVICES A ND GRID BALANCING 66 HYPERLINK l _bookmark77 Introduction 66 HYPERLINK l _bookmark79 Frequency regulation and balancing reserves 67 HYPERLINK l _bookmark82 Inertia and fast frequency response 70 HYPERLINK l _boo

30、kmark83 Reactive power and voltage control 72 HYPERLINK l _bookmark85 Managing transmission constraints 73 HYPERLINK l _bookmark86 Black start 74 HYPERLINK l _bookmark87 Ramping 75 HYPERLINK l _bookmark88 Ancillary service capability by generation type 75 HYPERLINK l _bookmark90 Great Britain 77 HYP

31、ERLINK l _bookmark91 Wholesale market structure and the Balancing Mechanism 77 HYPERLINK l _bookmark94 Reserve services 80 HYPERLINK l _bookmark95 Primary frequency response 81 HYPERLINK l _bookmark96 Reactive power 82 HYPERLINK l _bookmark97 Black start 82 HYPERLINK l _bookmark98 Transmission const

32、raints 83 HYPERLINK l _bookmark100 Recent trends and outlook for coal power 84 HYPERLINK l _bookmark103 Germany 86 HYPERLINK l _bookmark104 Wholesale market structure and grid balancing 86 HYPERLINK l _bookmark107 Transmission constraints 91 HYPERLINK l _bookmark109 Reactive power 92 HYPERLINK l _bo

33、okmark110 PJM 92 HYPERLINK l _bookmark111 Wholesale market structure 92 HYPERLINK l _bookmark112 Frequency response and grid balancing 93 HYPERLINK l _bookmark114 Reactive power 95 HYPERLINK l _bookmark115 Recent trends and reliability outlook 95 HYPERLINK l _bookmark118 ERCOT 97 HYPERLINK l _bookma

34、rk119 Market structure and grid balancing 97 HYPERLINK l _bookmark120 Recent trends and the role of coal plant 98 HYPERLINK l _bookmark124 Australia 102 HYPERLINK l _bookmark125 Ancillary service markets 102 HYPERLINK l _bookmark126 Recent trends 103 HYPERLINK l _bookmark129 Summary 104 HYPERLINK l

35、_bookmark130 MARKETS IN TRANSITIO N 106 HYPERLINK l _bookmark131 Introduction 106 HYPERLINK l _bookmark132 Japan 106 HYPERLINK l _bookmark136 India 109 HYPERLINK l _bookmark137 China 111 HYPERLINK l _bookmark138 Summary 112 HYPERLINK l _bookmark139 CONCLUSIONS 114 HYPERLINK l _bookmark140 REFERENCES

36、 117 L I S T O F F I GU R E S HYPERLINK l _bookmark8 Figure 1 HYPERLINK l _bookmark8 The electricity generation mix in Germany for November 2018 HYPERLINK l _bookmark8 18 HYPERLINK l _bookmark12 Figure 2 HYPERLINK l _bookmark12 The extent of liberalisation in global energy markets HYPERLINK l _bookm

37、ark12 21 HYPERLINK l _bookmark14 Figure 3 HYPERLINK l _bookmark14 Schematics showing various forms of electricity market structure HYPERLINK l _bookmark14 23 HYPERLINK l _bookmark17 Figure 4 HYPERLINK l _bookmark17 ISOs and RTOs in the USA HYPERLINK l _bookmark17 25 HYPERLINK l _bookmark19 Figure 5

38、HYPERLINK l _bookmark19 Capacity additions and retirements in the USA by generation type from 1950 to 2016 HYPERLINK l _bookmark19 26 HYPERLINK l _bookmark24 Figure 6 HYPERLINK l _bookmark24 Electricity generation in the EU 28 and select member states in 2018 HYPERLINK l _bookmark24 30 HYPERLINK l _

39、bookmark30 Figure 7 HYPERLINK l _bookmark30 Mechanisms for remunerating capacity in Europe and the USA HYPERLINK l _bookmark30 36 HYPERLINK l _bookmark32 Figure 8 HYPERLINK l _bookmark32 Supply and demand curves in the PJM reliability pricing mechanism capacity market HYPERLINK l _bookmark32 37 HYPE

40、RLINK l _bookmark36 Figure 9 HYPERLINK l _bookmark36 The schedule of the Reliability Pricing Model HYPERLINK l _bookmark36 40 HYPERLINK l _bookmark38 Figure 10 HYPERLINK l _bookmark38 Results from PJMs Reliability Pricing Model Base Residual Auction since its inception HYPERLINK l _bookmark38 42 HYP

41、ERLINK l _bookmark39 Figure 11 HYPERLINK l _bookmark39 Annual breakdown of total energy costs in PJM HYPERLINK l _bookmark39 43 HYPERLINK l _bookmark41 Figure 12 HYPERLINK l _bookmark41 The percentage of existing coal units in PJM recovering their avoidable costs HYPERLINK l _bookmark41 44 HYPERLINK

42、 l _bookmark45 Figure 13 HYPERLINK l _bookmark45 Energy generation in the ERCOT region by source since 2003 HYPERLINK l _bookmark45 46 HYPERLINK l _bookmark47 Figure 14 HYPERLINK l _bookmark47 The general form of ERCOTs Operating Reserve Demand Curve HYPERLINK l _bookmark47 47 HYPERLINK l _bookmark4

43、9 Figure 15 HYPERLINK l _bookmark49 Trends in total electricity price between 2016 and 2018 in ERCOT HYPERLINK l _bookmark49 48 HYPERLINK l _bookmark60 Figure 16 HYPERLINK l _bookmark60 Example demand and supply curves for the GB capacity market HYPERLINK l _bookmark60 55 HYPERLINK l _bookmark62 Fig

44、ure 17 HYPERLINK l _bookmark62 Results from the GB capacity market auctions HYPERLINK l _bookmark62 56 HYPERLINK l _bookmark71 Figure 18 HYPERLINK l _bookmark71 Results of the Polish capacity market auctions in 2018 for delivery in 2021, 2022, and HYPERLINK l _bookmark71 2023 HYPERLINK l _bookmark71

45、 62 HYPERLINK l _bookmark78 Figure 19 HYPERLINK l _bookmark78 The timescale of different forms of grid services in relation to the wholesale market and HYPERLINK l _bookmark78 longer-term planning HYPERLINK l _bookmark78 67 HYPERLINK l _bookmark80 Figure 20 Timescales of the three categories of rese

46、rve used for grid balancing by TSOs within the HYPERLINK l _bookmark80 synchronous grid of Continental Europe 69 HYPERLINK l _bookmark89 Figure 21 Ancillary services and other grid reliability attributes provided by each generation HYPERLINK l _bookmark89 resource type 77 HYPERLINK l _bookmark93 Fig

47、ure 22 The breakdown of National Grid balancing service costs for the financial year 2018/19 80 HYPERLINK l _bookmark99 Figure 23 A breakdown of constraint costs in the GB grid from financial year 2015/16 to 2018/19 84 HYPERLINK l _bookmark101 Figure 24 The average annual price for balancing service

48、s in the GB grid since 2010 85 HYPERLINK l _bookmark102 Figure 25 Monthly balancing costs in the GB grid from April 2013 to February 2018 85 HYPERLINK l _bookmark105 Figure 26 Total costs of system services in Germany between 2013 and 2018 89 HYPERLINK l _bookmark106 Figure 27 Energy source breakdow

49、n of ancillary services in Germany for 2017 90 HYPERLINK l _bookmark108 Figure 28 Grid balancing costs and variable renewable energy (VRE) deployment in Germany HYPERLINK l _bookmark108 from 2007 to 2016 91 HYPERLINK l _bookmark116 Figure 29 The cost per MWh of ancillary services in PJM since 1999 9

50、6 HYPERLINK l _bookmark117 Figure 30 Generation portfolios classed as desirable by PJM, according to a composite HYPERLINK l _bookmark117 reliability index 97 HYPERLINK l _bookmark122 Figure 31 Monthly variation in ancillary service costs in ERCOT from 2016 to 2018 99 HYPERLINK l _bookmark123 Figure

51、 32 Breakdown of ERCOT balancing reserve categories by fuel source 101 HYPERLINK l _bookmark127 Figure 33 Ancillary service costs in the NEM 103 HYPERLINK l _bookmark128 Figure 34 Supply of raise FCAS by fuel type 104 HYPERLINK l _bookmark135 Figure 35 The future development of reserve services in J

52、apan 108L I S T O F T A BL E S HYPERLINK l _bookmark22 Table 1 HYPERLINK l _bookmark22 Key aspects of EU energy market directives HYPERLINK l _bookmark22 28 HYPERLINK l _bookmark53 Table 2 HYPERLINK l _bookmark53 Coal units in the Network Reserve HYPERLINK l _bookmark53 52 HYPERLINK l _bookmark63 Ta

53、ble 3 HYPERLINK l _bookmark63 Value of capacity market obligations to UK coal plants HYPERLINK l _bookmark63 58 HYPERLINK l _bookmark81 Table 4 HYPERLINK l _bookmark81 Categories of frequency control services used in different national and regional grids HYPERLINK l _bookmark81 and their relation to

54、 the basic categories of primary, secondary, and tertiary control HYPERLINK l _bookmark81 70 HYPERLINK l _bookmark84 Table 5 HYPERLINK l _bookmark84 Procurement of reactive power in various grid regions HYPERLINK l _bookmark84 73 HYPERLINK l _bookmark92 Table 6 HYPERLINK l _bookmark92 Ancillary serv

55、ices procured by National Grid HYPERLINK l _bookmark92 79 HYPERLINK l _bookmark113 Table 7 HYPERLINK l _bookmark113 Size of balancing reserves HYPERLINK l _bookmark113 94 HYPERLINK l _bookmark121 Table 8 HYPERLINK l _bookmark121 Average size and cost of balancing reserves in ERCOT in 2017 and 2018 H

56、YPERLINK l _bookmark121 98 HYPERLINK l _bookmark133 Table 9 HYPERLINK l _bookmark133 Current categories of grid balancing reserve in Japan for 2019 HYPERLINK l _bookmark133 107 HYPERLINK l _bookmark134 Table 10 HYPERLINK l _bookmark134 Proposed new categories of reserve services in Japan HYPERLINK l

57、 _bookmark134 108E X E C U T I V E SU M M A R YGROWING CONCERNS OVER GRID RELIABILITY AND RESOURCE ADEQUACYMany electricity grids have moved towards more liberalised, competitive market structures, while also seeing rapid growth in variable renewable energy (VRE) sources such as wind and solar power

58、. This change in grid composition has created challenging market conditions for thermal plant in several regions, due to falling operating hours and wholesale energy prices. Rapid retirement of coal plant in particular, often combined with insufficient investment in new thermal capacity, has led to

59、widespread reassessment of the ability of electricity markets to deliver grids with adequate reliability, resilience, and resource adequacy. In addition to providing dependable back-up capacity to intermittent renewable generation, thermal plant provides key grid services including inertia, frequenc

60、y control, and reactive power, which can be difficult to obtain from VRE plant. There is therefore growing interest in expanding the role of mechanisms which can compensate plant capabilities beyond the basic delivery of energy, such as capacity, ancillary services, and flexibility.CAPACITY MECHANIS