现代语言学前五章课后习题答案

1、Chapter 1 Introduction1. Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.请解释以下语言学的定义：语言学是对语言的科学研究。Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic inv

2、estigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是

3、任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在 对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严 肃的语言学结论：观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正 确性。1. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 语言学的主要分支是什么？他们每个人都研究什么？ Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified 语音学一一语音是如何产生和分类的Phonolog

4、y-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学一一声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学一一词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学一一意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study

5、 of meaning in context of use语用学一一在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学一一研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学：研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories

6、 to language teaching and learning应用语言学一一语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同？Word资料.Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。Traditi

7、onal grammar is prescxxxxriptive;it is baxxxxsed on high “ written language.传统语法是指令性的，它是以高级”书面语言为基础的。1. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?现代语言学主要是共时的还是历时的？为什么？Modern linguistics is mainly synchronicfocusing on the present-day language.Unless the various states of a language a

8、re successfully studiedit will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时的，侧重于当代语言。除非语言的各种状态已成功地研究，否则就不 可能从历时的角度来描述语言。1. Which enjoys priority in modern linguisticsspeech or writing?Why?在现代语言学中，口头语和书面语哪个优先畏什么？Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguist

9、ic study for the following reasons: 在现代语言学研究中，言语优先于写作，原因如下 ：1. Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.就进化而言，语言先于文字。2. A larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.更多的交流是通过口头而不是书面进行的。1. Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.言语是幼儿习得母语的形式。

10、1. How is Saussures distinction between language and parole similar to Chomskysdistinction between competence and performance?索绪尔对语言和言语的区分与乔姆斯基对能力和表现的区分有何相似之处？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Their purpose is to single

11、 out the language system for serious study索绪尔和乔姆斯基都对抽象语言系统和语言的实际使用进行了区分。他们的目的是把语言系 统挑出来进行认真的研究。1. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a goodcomprehensive definition of language?关于语言特征，你认为好的、全面的语言定义应该包括哪些？Word资料.Language is a rule-governed system.受规贝U支配的系统Language is b

12、asically vocal. 基本上是发声的Language is arbitrary. 任意的。Language is used for human communication.用于人际交往1. What features of human language have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?C霍克特列出了人类语言的哪些甄别性特征来证明它与任何动物的交流系统在本质上是不同 的？Arbitrariness-

13、no logical connection between meanings and soundsto have an unlimited source of exxxxxpressionsa sign of sophistication only humans are capable of 任意性（武断性）一一意思和声音之间没有逻辑联系，有无限的表达来源，这是只有人类才能做到的复杂的标志Creativity-it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its usersThisis why t

14、hey can produce and undertand an infinitely large number of sentences.Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send创造性一一它使得用户可以构造和解释新的信号，这就是为什么他们可以产生和理解无限多 的句子.动物能够发出的信息非常有限Duality- （meaningless sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as mor

15、phemes and wordsthen the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences ） a feature totally lacking in any animal communication双重性一一（没有意义的声音可以分组和重新组合成大量的意义单位如语素和词然后在更高级 别的单位可以安排和重新安排到无限的句子）动物之间完全没有交流的特征 Displacement-language can be used to refer to cont

16、exts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.No animal can talk“ about things removed from the immediate situation移位性一一语言可以用来指从说话人的直接情景中移出的上下文。任何动物都不能谈论”脱离当前环境的事物Cultural trasmission-Details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send

17、 out certain signals as a means of limited communication 文化传递一一人类语言系统的细节是教和学的，而动物生来就有能力发出某种信号，作为一 种有限的交流方式Chapter 2 PhonologyWord资料.1. What are the two major media of communication?of the twowhich one is primary and why?两种主要的传播媒介是什么？两者中，哪一个是主要的，为什么 ？Speech and writing are the two major media used by

18、 natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of languagespeech is considered primary over writing.The reasons are:Speech is prior to writing in language evolution The writing system of any language is always invented “ by its users to record speech when the need arises.Speech pl

19、ays a greater role in daily communicationand speech is the way in which people acquire their native language. 言语和写作是自然语言作为交流工具的两种主要媒介。在语言的两种媒介中，言语被认为是最主要的。的原因是：在语言进化过程中，言语先于文字，任何一种语言的书写系统都是使用者在需要时发明”出来记录言语的。言语在日常交际中起着越来越重要的作用，言语是人们习得母语的方式。1. What are the three branches of phonetics?How do they contr

20、ibute to the study of speech sounds?语音学的三个分支是什么？它们对语音的研究有何贡献？Articulatory auditory and acoustic phonetics.Articulatory phonetics it studies the speech sounds from the speakers point of view. It studieshow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics , it studies the s

21、peech sounds from the hearer s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics , it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.发音语音学它所研

22、究的语音说话人的观点。它研究说话者如何使用他的语言器官来发音。 听觉语音学它所研究的语音听者的观点。它研究的是听者如何感知声音。声学语音学它通过观察研究了语音声波。它研究语音通过空气从一个人传到另一个人的物理 方式。1. Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?人的发音器官在哪里？In the three cavities: pharyngealoralnasal.在三个月空：咽、 口、鼻。1. What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is an artic

23、ulatory dimension of speech sound production.It distinguishes meaning in many languages such as English;therefore it is a phonological feature.It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.Word资料.声音是语音产生的一个发音维度。它在许多语言(如英语)中区分意义，因此它是一种语音特征。它是由声带的振动引起的。What is the function of the nasal cavity?How d

24、oes it perform this function?鼻腔的功能是什么？它是如何执行这个功能的？To nasalize the sounds that are produced.It does this by closing the air passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities so that the air stream can only go through the nasal cavity.使产生的声音鼻音化。它通过关闭连接口腔和鼻腔的空气通道来实现这一点，这样气流只能通过鼻腔。Describe the various part

25、s in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of speech sounds.The main parts in the oral cavity are lips teeth teeth ridgehard palatesoft palate(velum)uvulathe back and the blade of the tonguetip of tongue.Explain with examples how broad transcxxxxription and narrow transcxxxxription di

26、ffer.举例说明宽式音标和严式音标有何不同。Broad transcxxxxription-one letter symbol for one sound宽式首标-一个字母符号代表一个声首Narrow transcxxxxription-diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.严式音标-在宽式音标上加变音符号来显示声音的细微差别How are the English consonants classified? 英语辅音是如何分类的 ？ Two wa

27、ys to classify consonants: by manner of articulation and by place of articulation. 辅音的两种分类方法：发音方式和发音位置。What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?英语元音的分类标准是什么Position of the tonguei.e.the part of the tongue that is held highest.Openness of the mouthLength of the sound.Shape of the lipsLax

28、ity of the glottis.(1)舌头的位置，即舌头的最高点Word资料.(2)嘴巴张开度(3)声音的长度。(4)嘴唇的形状声门松弛度。1. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descxxxxriptions:给出下列每一种声音描述的语音符号1. Voiced palata affricate d ?浊音腭塞1. Voiceless labiodental fricative f清音唇齿音摩擦1. Voiced alveolar stop d浊音齿槽音爆破音1. Frontcloseshort i前，闭，

29、短1. Backsemi-openlong o:后，半开，长Voicelessbilabial stop p清音，双唇音，爆破音Give the phonetic feature of each of the following sounds:d voiced alveolar stop 浊音齿槽音爆破音l Alveolar liquids lateral齿槽音流音边音t? voiceless palatal affricates清音上颗音破擦音w glides bilabial滑音双唇音u back close short 后 闭短? front open 前开1. How do phone

30、tics and phonology differ in their focus of study?语音学和音韵学的研究重点有何不同？Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between say l and ?pand ph a phonetician or a phonologist?why?你认为谁会更感兴趣来区别l and ?p and ph,语言学者或音韵学者，为什么Phonetics: descxxxxription of all speech sounds and their fine differen

31、ces.Word资料.Phonology: descxxxxription of sound system of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences because such differences will not cause differences in meaning.语音学:对所有语音及其细微差别的描述。音韵学:描述特定语言的声音系统，以及声音如何区分意义。语音学家对这些

32、差异更感兴趣，因为这些差异不会导致意义上的差异。What is a phone? How is it different from a phoeme?How are allophones related to a phoneme?语音是什么？它和音素有什么不同？变声词与音素有什么关系？Phonea speech sound a phonetic unit语音发音，语音单位Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound featuresa phonological unit.音素一一一组抽象的声音特征，一个音位单位。Allophones-actual realiza

33、tions of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.音位变体音素在不同语音环境中的实际实现。What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set？Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language？什么是最小对，什么是最小集畏什么在语言中识另I最小集很重要？Minimal pair Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element th

34、at occurs in the same position.Minimal set A group of sound combinations with the above feature.By identifying the minimal pairs or the minimal set of a languagea phonologist can identify its phonemes.最小对一两个声音组合，除了在相同位置出现的一个声音元素外，其他各方面都相同。最小集一一一组具有上述特征的声音组合。通过识别一种语言的最小对或最小集，音素学家可以识别它的音素。Explain with

35、 examples the sequential rulethe assimilation ruleand the deletion rule.举例说明序列规则、同化规则和省略规则。Sequential rule rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language For exampleif a word begins with a l or a rthen the next sound must be a vowel. Another exampleif three consonants should clust

36、er together at the beginning of a wordthe combination should obey the following three rules:the first phoneme must be sthe second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/Word资料.the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/words like springspri ? strict strikt splendid splendid squareskwe ?在特定语言中控制声音组合的序列规则例如

37、，如果一个单词以l或r开头，那么下一个音必须是元音。另一个例子，如果三个辅音在一个单词的开头聚在一起，组合应该遵循以下三个规则(1)第一个音素必须是s(2)第二个音素必须是/p/或/t/或/k/第三个音素必须是/l/或/r/或/w/如 springspri ?strictstriktsplendidsquare skwe ?Assimilation rule rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one of its phonetic features.For examplewhie the i:

38、 sound is non-nasalized in such words teapeep and flee it is nasalized in words like beangreenteamand scream.This is because in all these sound combination the i: sound is followed by a nasaln or m.While we are pronouncing the i: soundwe are already getting ready to pronounce the subsequent nasal so

39、und.Another exampleprefix in- is not always pronouced as an alveolar nasal.It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonat that follows iti.e.dis an alveolar stop.But then sound in the word incorrect is actually pronouced as a velar nasali.e. ?.This is because the consonant that follows it is k

40、which is a velar stop.同化规则通过复制一个音的语音特征来同化与下一个音相似的音。例如，当i:这个音在tea、peep和escape这样的单词中没有鼻音化时，它在 bean、green、 team和scream这样的单词中有鼻音化。这是因为在所有这些声音组合中，i:后面跟着一个鼻音n或m。当我们发i:音的时候，我们已经准备好发后面的鼻音了。另一个例子，in-前缀并不总是发音成齿槽鼻音。在 轻率”一词中是如此，因为它后面的辅音，即 轻率，d为齿槽爆破音。 但是 不正确”这个词中的n音实际上是发软腭鼻音，即?。这是因为它后面的辅音是k,这是一个velar stop软腭爆破音。D

41、eletion rule rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.For examplethere is no g sound in signdesignparadigmbut in their corresponding forms signaturedesignationparadigmaticthe g is pronounced.i.e.letter g in -gn or-gm is deletedaccord

42、ing to the regular rule if no suffix is added.省略规则是在一定的语音上下文中对一个音进行省略的规则，尽管它拼写正常显示。例如，在signdesignparadigm 中没有g音，但在它们相应的变形中， signaturedesignationparadigmatic 中，g 是发音的。也就是说，在 -gn 或-gm 中，如果不添 加后缀，则按规则省略字母g的发音。Word资料.What are suprasegmental features?How do the major suprasegmental features of English fu

43、nction in conveying meaning?什么是超切分特征？ 英语的主要超切分特征在表达意义上有什么作用？Suprasegmental features -phonological features above the sound segment level. The major suprasegmental features in English-word stresssentence stressintonation.Stress:Depending on the context in which stress is consideredthere are two kinds

44、 of stress:word stress and sentence stress.When we say that a certain syllable of a word is stressedwe mean that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others.English is a language in which stress is free in that it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a wordits positi

45、on varies from word to word.But the location of stress in English distinguishes meaningfor examplea shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the s

46、tress on the second syllabel.Similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.Sentence stress refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence.Some words are more important that other wordsand the more important word

47、s are pronounced with greater force and made more important.Tones are pitch variationswhich are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language.When pitchstress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolationthey are collective

48、ly known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation:the falling tonethe rising tonethe fall-rise toneand the rise-fall tone.The falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forwardmatter-of-fact statementthe rising tone often makes a question of what is saidand the fall-rise

49、tine often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said. 超切分特征-单音层面以上的音系特征。英语的主要超切分特征是单词重音、句子重音、语调。重音:根据重音所处的语境，重音有两种：单词重音和句子重音。当我们说一个单词的某个音节重读时，我们的意思是这个音节的发音比另一个或其他音节更 有力。英语是一种没有重音的语言，重音不固定在单词的任何一个音节上，它的位置因单词 而异。但是英语中重音的位置可以区分意义，例如，重音的变化可能会使一个单词的词性从Word资料. 名词变成动词，尽管它的拼写没有变化。名词的重音在第一个音

50、节，相应的动词重音在第二 个音节。同样的重音交替也发生在复合名词和由相同成分组成的短语之间。句子重音是指一个句子中 单词所受到的相对力量。有些单词比其他单词更重要，而更重要的单词发音更有力，变得更 重要。声调是音调的变化，是由声带的不同频率的振动引起的。英语不是一种声调语言。当音高、重音和音长与句子而不是单词本身联系在一起时，它们统称为语调。英语有四种基 本的语调类型 降调、升调、降升调和升降调。降调表明说话是一种直截了当、实事求是的陈述，升调常常对说话内容提出质疑，而升调常 常表明说话内容中隐含着某种信息。Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学What does morpholog

51、y study? 形态学研究什么 ？The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.单词的内部结构和构成规则。What is morpheme?Dissect the following words into morphemes: Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language.De-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-tic ana-tomyRadia-tion geo-graph-y phil

52、-harmon-ic de-frost-edRe-fresh-ment de-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ion Circum-spect dia-logue de-form-ed com-bina-tionDescribe with examples the various types of morpheme used in English.Words containing only one morpheme are free morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be use

53、d freely all by themselves. Such as helptableroommatequickfrightable-er-endis-bio-less-symthese morphemes cannot be used by themselvesbut must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.They are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and af

54、fixes.A root is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it bears cleardefinite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example geo- bears the meaning of the earth -ology “ means a brand of learning . tele- meaning distantfar -vision “

55、meaning seeingsight .leter- means words” -al is an affix used to form adjectives.Affix :Word资料.According to functions we have inflectional and derivational affixes.Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or categories such as munberstensedegree and posse

56、ssive case.(e)s indicating plurality of nouns;third person singular present tense of verb.ing indicating progressive aspect(e)d indicating past tense(e) indicating past participleer indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbsest indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbss in

57、dicating the possessive case of nounsDerivational affixes are added to an existing form which is called stem to creat a word. The stem can be a bound roota free morphemeor a derived form itself.Root toler- + affix -ate“ tolerateFree morphemequick+ affix -1y “ quicklyFree morpheme care +affix -less“

58、carelessDerivative careless + affix -nesscarelessnessAccording to its position in the new wordaffixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefix modify the meaning of the stembut usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Dis-表示不，否定，相反的 ：dislikediscontinue disagreeUn- 表示不， 相反的动

59、作 :uneasy unconscious unfavorable unlockIn-表示不，incorrect inconvenientMis-表示坏，错误，否定 misinform mistake misplaceDe-表示除去， 向下： devaluate decentralize deoxidizeUni- 表示单，一 :unify unilateral unicornSuffixes are added to the end of stemsthey modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change it

60、s part of speech.-er :表施动人 teacher writer beginner-ician :表专业人员 electrician mathematician physician-bility : 可能，能力， posibility solubility capability-hood : 表示时期，状态 childhood manhood-age:表示地方 orphanageanchorage vicarage-ary :表示-的 elementary secondary-ful :表充满-的，有-性质 beautifuldelightfulsorrowful-en:使变