大学英语词汇学期末考试重点复习资料整理

1、2012词汇学复习资料ThedevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary1.Indo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyTheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyisconsideredasoneofthemostimportantlanguagefamilies.ItincludesmostlanguagesofEurope,theNearEast,andIndia.Thoselanguages,whicharebelievedtohaveoriginatedfromthislanguagefamilyanddevelopedalonedif

2、ferentlines,showvariousdegreesofsimilaritytooneanother.Theyfallintoeightprincipalgroups,whichcanbegroupedintoanEasternSet东音B诸语族Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语，Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族，Armenian亚美尼亚语族andAlbanian阿尔巴尼亚语族；aWesternSet西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族，Italic意大利语族，Hellenic希腊语族，Germanic日尔曼语族.Allthelanguagesinbothsetsshedsome

3、influenceonEnglishtoagreaterorlesserextentbecauseeachhaslentwordsintotheEnglishvocabulary.Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语PPrussian普鲁士语Lithuanian立陶宛语Polish波兰语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语Bulgarian保加利亚语Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语IRussianAlbanian阿尔巴尼亚Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Persian波斯语Hindi北印度语Bengali孟加拉语Romany,吉卜赛语Armenian亚美尼亚语Italic意大利语族Portugues

4、eSpanishYItalianRoumanian罗马尼亚语-FrenchIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyCeltic凯尔特语IrishBretonScottishGermanicJ日尔曼语言Norwegian挪威语Icelandic,冰岛语Danish丹麦语Swedish瑞典语EnglishDutchFlemishGermanHellenic,古希腊语-GreekChapter1AGeneralSurveyofAWordTheDefinitionofWord?Awordis(1) Aminimalfreeformofalanguage;(2) asoundunity;(

5、3) aunityofmeaning;(4) aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentence.Awordisaminimalfreeformthathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction.Awordisasmallestunitofalanguage.1 .ThedevelopmentofEnglishvocabularyThehistoryofEnglishlanguagecanbedividedinto3periods:a/OldEnglishperiod(4491100)Theformerinhabitants,

6、theCeltic,theGermanictribescalledAngles,SaxonsandJutesAnglo-SaxonasOldEnglish,OldEnglishcontains50-60thousandwords,whichconsistsofthebasicwordstock.b/MiddleEnglishperiod(1100-1500)characterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066.TheFrenchloanwordswerefoundinlawandgovernmenta

7、ladministration(judge,justice)c/ModernEnglishperiod(1500-)theearlystageofthisperiod(includingtheyearsbetween1500-1700),theRenaissancebroughtgreatchangestothevocabulary.borrowingfromLatin,Latinwerenowmostlyconnectedwithscienceandabstractideas.Greekborrowingsweremostlyliterary,technicalandscientificwo

8、rds2 .ClassificationofEnglishWordsAccordingtoDifferentCriteriaA. ByOrigin:nativewordsandloan(borrowed)wordsInEnglishlanguage,mostnativewordsinModernEnglisharemonosyllabic.TheyformthegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockofEnglishlanguage.Thefundamentalfeaturesofthebasicwordstockare:1. Nationalcharacter;2.

9、Stability;3.Word-formingability;4.AbilitytoformcollocationsSincethegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockarenativewords,theyarenaturallytheonesusedmostfrequentlyineverydayspeechandwriting.B. Bylevelofusage1. Commonwords(P11wordsconnectedwithordinarythingsoractivitiesnecessarytoeverydaylife:“Therepeatedtel

10、ephonecallsonlyannoyedmebutmademysisterveryangry.”)2. Literarywords(P12wordsarechieflyusedinwriting,formalspeeches,e.g.Feelingfatigued,Tomretiredearly.):a.Archaicwords;b.PoeticalwordsSeeP133. Colloquialwords:WordsusedmainlyinspokenEnglish,inconversationamongfriendsandcolleagues,e.g.“Johnwasfiredforp

11、ettythieving”4. SlangwordsC. Bynotion:functionwordsandcontent(P17)functionwordsareshortwordssuchasdeterminers,conjunctions,prepositions,auxiliaries,andsoon,theyservegrammaticalmeaningContentwordshavelexicalmeaning,suchasnouns,mainverbs,adjandadv.e.g.Thepasserbywashitbythetruck.Chapter2Word-Structure

12、andWord-Formation(1)1. Thedefinitionofmorpheme1.1 Whatisthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage?-morphemeWhatarewordscomposedof?-Wordsareformedbymorphemes.Awordisthesmallestunitthatstandsalonetocommunicatemeaning.1.2 WhataretheChineseequivalentsofmorpheme?语素词素-形位2.1 Morphemesmaybeclassifiedint

13、ofreeandbound.Freemorphemes,alsocalledcontentmorphemes,mayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Sowemaysaythatfreemorphemesarefreeroots.Boundmorphemes=Boundroot+affixes,knownasgrammaticalmorphemes,mustappearwithatleast

14、oneothermorpheme,eitherfreeorbound.Boundmorphemesarechieflyfoundinderivedwords,e.g.recollection,idealistic,ex-prisoner2.2 Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedintoroots(orrootmorphemes)andaffixes(oraffixationalmorphemes).Task:(1) Readthefollowingwordsandfindtherootineachword.heart,hearten,dishearten,heartles

15、s,hearty,heartiness,sweetheart,heartbroken,kind-hearted,whole-heartedly.(2) Whatisyourdefinitionofroot?Arootisthepartoftheword-formwhichremainswhenalltheaffixeshavebeenremoved.(3) Isarootnecessarilyafreemorpheme?Why?2.2.1 Twotypesofroots- FreerootInEnglish,manyrootsarefreemorphemes,suchasblackinblac

16、k,blackboard,blacksmith.- BoundrootHowever,therearequiteanumberofrootswhichcannotexistontheirownandthusbelongtotheclassofboundmorphemes.Forexample,ceiveinreceive,conceive,perceive,deceive;mitinpermit,commit,submit;taininretain,contain,maintain;curinrecur,occur,incur,etc.theserootscannotbeusedtoformn

17、ewwords.2.2.2 TwotypesofaffixesAffixisacollectivetermforthetypeofformative(构词成分)thatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.-Inflectionalaffixes(orinflectionalmorphemes)servetoexpressthefollowingmeanings:(1) plurality:e.g.-sinchairs,pens;-esinboxes,tomatoes;eninoxen.(2) thegenitivecase:e.g.sinboys,c

18、hildrens.(3) theverbalendings:forexample,a. -(e)sinwordslikeeats,teachesshowsthethirdpersonsingularpresenttense.b. -inginwordslikeeating,teachingshowsthepresentparticipleorgerund.c. -(e)dinwordslikeworked,savedshowsthepasttenseorpastparticiple.(4) thecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees:e.g.-erinwordsli

19、kesmaller,harder;-estinwordslikesmallest,hardest.-Derivationalaffixes(orderivationalmorphemes)canbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.?(1)Prefixesareaffixesbeforetheroot,e.g:unjust,rewrite.Asarule,mostprefixesmodifythemeaningofroots,butnottheirpartsofspeech.task:listsomeprefixesthatcanmodifythepa

20、rtsofspeech.- en-(em-)asinwordslikeembody,enrich- be-asinwordslikebefriend,belittle- a-asinwordslikeasleep,aside?(2)Suffixesareaffixesaftertheroot,e.g.:darkness,worker.Bytheadditionofthesuffix,thewordisusuallychangedfromonepartofspeechintoanother,e.g.liberation,modernize.2.3Relationshipbetweenthetwo

21、classificationsofmorphemesMorphemeItistheminimalmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Oritisthesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords.a)BoundmorphemesaremorphemeswhichalonecanbeusedaswordsWhatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisoneofthevariantsofthesamemorpheme.语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。Amorphememaytakevariousshapesorfo

22、rms.3.5MorphemeandWord-formationInword-formation,morphemesarelabeledroot,stem,baseandaffix.在构词法中，语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。Twotypesofaffixes:InflectionalaffixesandDerivationalaffixes屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectionalaffixesfunctionasgrammaticalmarkers.表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。-s,-es,ing,-er,or-(e)d,estDerivationalaffixesorderivati

23、onalmorphemesTheycanbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes一(1) Prefixesareaffixesbeforetheroot.e.g.,unjust,rewrite.Asarule,mostprefixesmodifythemeaningofroots,butnottheirpartsofspeech.(2) SuffixesareaffixesaftertherootBytheadditionofthesuffix,thewordisusuallychangedfromonepartofspeechintoanother,e.

24、g.liberation,modernize.Root,stem,base词根、词干、词基Arootisthatpartofawordformthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。Astemisthatpartoftheword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。Abasereferstoaformtowhichaffixe

25、sofanykind(bothderivationalandinflectional)canbeadded.Itcanbearootorastem.词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行分析的形式，在上面可以加上派生词缀。但是词根则不容许做进一步的分析。词基与词干也是不同的，因为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，而只有屈折词缀可以加在词干上。Task:Analysethewordintermsofroot,stemand

26、base.free morpheme (自由形位)bound morpheme (粘附形undesirable（n.）:不是词根（可再分解）；是词干（可以加屈折词缀，如名词复数-s）,也是词基。boundroot(粘附词根)inflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)affix-prefix(前缀)(词缀)derivationalaffix-(派生词缀)Isuffix(后缀)1. Affixation(derivation)词缀法Affixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorderivationa

27、laffixestostems.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,fornewwordscreatedinthiswayarederivedfromoldforms.Accordingtothepositionsthataffixesoccupyinwords,affixationfallsintotwosubclasses;prefixationandsuffixation.Prefixation:Prefixdonotgenerallychangetheword-classofthestembutonlymodifyitsmeaning.However,

28、present-dayEnglishfindsanincreasingnumberofclass-changingprefixes.e.g.asleepa(a-+v),encourageV(en-+n),unearthV(un-+n),de-oilV(de-+n),postwara(post-+n),intercollegea(inter-+n)andothers.ThesemakeuponlyaninsignificantnumberinthehugecontemporaryvocabularyThemajorityofprefixesarecharacterizedbytheirnon-c

29、lass-changingnature.TheirchieffunctionistochangethemeaningofthestemsSuffixation:Suffixeshaveonlyasmallsemanticrole;theirprimaryfunctionistochangethegrammaticalfunctionofstems.Theymainlychangethewordclass.Therefore,weshallgroupsuffixesonagrammaticalbasisintofourgroups.2. compoundingCompounding,alsoca

30、lledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.Soacompoundisa'lexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonestemandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword'(Quirketal1985).Silkworm蚕andhone-ybee蜜蜂arecompounds;soareteargas催泪andeasycha

31、ir安乐椅.Theseexamplesshowthatcompoundscanbewrittensolid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee)andopen(teargasandeasychair)Asopencompoundsarethesameinformasfreephrases,whatisthedividinglinebetweenthem?2.1 CharacteristicsofCompoundsCompoundsdifferfromfreephrasesinthefollowingthreeaspects.1. PhoneticfeaturesInc

32、ompoundsthewordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstelementwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallystressedifthereisonlyonestressIncasesoftwostresses,thecompoundhastheprimarystressonthefirstelementandthesecondarystress,ifany,onthesecondwhereastheoppositeistrueoffreephrases,e.g.CompoundFreephrasea'

33、;hot1house温房,暖房,干燥室ahot'housea'blackhorseablack'horsea'greenroomagreen'roomButthesestresspatternsofcompoundsarenotabsolute.Sometimes,theprimarystressmayalsofallonthesecondelementasinash-'blonde灰银and,bottle-'green深绿色的aswellasincombining-formcompounds,socio-lin'guistic,

34、psycho-a'nalysis.Therefore,thisisnotalwaysreliable.2. SemanticfeaturesCompoundsaredifferentfromfreephrasesinsemanticunity.Everycompoundshouldexpressasingleideajustasoneword.Forinstance,agreenhandisan'inexperiencedperson',notahandthatisgreenincolour;redmeatrefersto'beef'or'lam

35、b'ratherthananymeatthatisredincolour;hotdogisbynomeansadogthatishot,butatypicalAmericansausageinbetweentwopiecesofbread.Themeaningsofsuchexamplescannotbeeasilyinferredfromthetwocomponentsofthecompounds.Nevertheless,alotofcompoundsaretransparent,thatisthemeaningcanbeinferredfromtheseparateelement

36、sofcompounds.Considerthefollowingrandomexamples:disaster-related,flowerpot,washingmachine,dumbshow哑剧,scarletfever猩红热andmanyothers.Butthetwoelementsareinseparableandthechangeoftheelementwouldresultinthelossoftheoriginalidentity.3. GrammaticalfeaturesAcompoundtendstoplayasinglegrammaticalroleinasenten

37、ce,forexample,averb,anoun,oranadjective.Bad-mouthusedasaverbcantakethethirdpersonsingular-sandthepasttensemarker-ed,e.g.'Hebad-mouthedme.苛刻批评'(BolingerandSears1981)Compoundnounsshowtheirpluralformsbytakinginflectional-sattheend,e.g.new-borns,three-year-olds,will-o'-the-wisps,majorgeneral

38、s.少将Ofcourse,thereareexceptionssuchasbrothers-in-law,lookers-on.Inspiteofthistheirsinglegrammaticalroleisapparent.Inadjective-nouncompounds,theadjectiveelementcannottakeinflectionalsuffixes,forexample:CompoundFreephrasefineart美术finerart美艺术redtape官样文章reddesttape最红带子hotlinehotterline线路,航线3. Conversion

39、Conversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Thisisamethodofturningwordsofonepartofspeechtothoseofadifferentpartofspeech.Thesewordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense.Sincethewordsdonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,thisprocessisalsoknownasfunctionalshift.Lookat

40、thewordroundinthefollowingsentences:4aHewasknockedoutinthefirstround.4bRoundthenumberofftothenearesttenth.4cTheneighboursgatheredroundourbarbecue.4dThemoonwasbrightandround.4ePeoplecamefromallthecountryround.(fromLodwig&Barrett1973)4. Blending拼缀法4.1 Whatisblending?Blendingisaprocessofword-format

41、ioninwhichanewwordisformedfromtwowords,oneofwhichisnotinitsfullformorbothofwhicharenotintheirfullforms.Theresultofsuchaprocessiscalledablend,whichcombinesthesoundsandthemeaningoftwoothers.Themajorityofblendsarenouns,veryfewareverbsandadjectivesareevenfewer.Accordingtostructure,blendsfallintofourmajo

42、rgroups.4.2 ClassificationofblendingStructurally,blendscanbesubdividedintothefollowingfivegroups:(1) Thefirstpartofthefirstword+thelastpartofthesecondone:head+tailChinglish,smog(2) Firstpartofthefirstword+firstpartofthesecondword:head+headsci-fi,telecon(3) Wholeformofthefirstword+lastpartofthesecond

43、one:word+tailnewscast,workfare(4) Firstpartofthefirstword+wholeformofthesecondone:head+wordheliport,telediagnosis(5) Wholeformofthefirstword+firstpartofthesecondone:word+headskylabManyblendshaveonlyaveryshortlifeandareveryinformal.Theyareparticularlycommonincommercialandjournalisticlanguage.5. Clipp

44、ingAnothercommonwayofmakingawordistoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.Inmoderntimes,peopletendtobeeconomicalinwritingandspeechtokeepupwiththetempoofnewlifestyle.Tosavetimeoneislikelytoclipwordsthatarefrequentlyused.Therearefourcommontypesofclipping:(5) FrontClip

45、ping截前留后Quake(earthquake)copter(helicopter)scope(telescope)phone(telephone)gym(gymnastics)(6) Backclipping截后留前Dorm(dormitory)memo(memorandum)stereo(stereophonic)disco(discotheque)(7) Frontandbackclipping截前后留中间Flu(influenza)fridge()refrigerator(8) Phraseclipping截词组Pub(publichouse)zoo(zoologicalgarden

46、)pop(popularmusic)perm(permanentwaves)6. Acronymy首字母拼音法Acronymyistheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.Dependingonthepronunciation,wordsformedinthiswayarecalledinitialisms词首字母缩略词oracronyms首字母拼音词1) Lettersrep

47、resentfullwords:VOA,BBC,c/o=careof由.转交,p.c.=postcard2) Lettersrepresentconstituentsinacompoundorjustpartsofaword:TV.ID=identitycard,GHQ=GeneralHeadquarters.AcronymsAwordformedfromtheinitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword,suchasradarforradiodetectingandranging.NATO,AIDSBASIC,TEFLN-bomb,D-day,V-day7

48、. Back-formation逆构法Wordscreatedthroughthiswayaremostlyverbs.Stylistically,back-formedwordsarelargelyinformal.Whatisback-formation?Back-formationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofthesupposedaffix.Forinstance,theverbeditwasformedfromeditorbydroppingthesuffix-or.Theverbaggres

49、swasformedfromthenounaggressionbyremovingthesuffix-ion.7.1 Typesofback-formation(1) Verbsbackformedfromnounsendingin-er,-or,-ar:cobbler修鞋匠-tocobbleTomakeormend(bootsorshoes)修：制造或修理(长统靴或鞋)rover-wanderer.流浪汉；漫游者torovebulldozer推土机-tobulldozeToclear,digup,ormovewithabulldozer.用推土机整地：用推土机消除、削平或挖出sculptor

50、雕塑家-tosculptToshape,mold,orfashionespeciallywithartistryorprecision:雕塑diaosuorator演说者,演讲者-toorateliar-toliebeggar-tobeg(2) Verbsbackformedfromnounsendingin-tion,-sion:automation-toautomatetocontroloroperatebyautomation.通过自动化控制或操作destruction-todestructnegation-tonegatedonation-todonatetelevision-tote

51、levise(3) Verbsbackformedfromabstractnouns:diagnosis-todiagnoseenthusiasm-toenthuse(4) Verbsbackformedfromadjectives:drowsy-todrowsegloomy-togloomlazy-tolaze(5) Verbsbackformedfromcompoundwords:babysitter-tobaby-sithousesitter-tohousesit(6)Nounsbackformedfromadjectives:gloomy-gloomgreedy-greed(7) Ad

52、jectivesbackformedfromnoun/adverb/adjective:difficulty-difficultutterly-utterunflappable不易惊慌的；镇定的-flappable=Easilyexcitedorupset.易激动或不安的Lecture6WordMeaning1. Themeaningsof“meaning”(1) Reference所指Referenceistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworld“Bymeansofreference,aspeakerindicateswhichthingsinthe

53、world(includingpersons)arebeingtalkedabout.”Wordshavemeaningonlywhentheyhaveacquiredreference.Inotherwords,onlywhenaconnectionhasbeenestablishedbetweenthelinguisticsignandareferent,i.e.anobject,aphenomenon,aperson,etc.doesthesignbecomemeaningful.Thereferenceofawordtoathingoutsidethelanguageisarbitra

54、ryandconventional.Thisconnectionistheresultofgeneralizationandabstraction,butwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.Thewordcatreferstoawholesetofanimalofthesamespecieswithoutthedistinctionofsize,colour,region,ownerandotherfactor.Itistheextensionofallcatsintheuniverse.,butitcanreferstoapa

55、rticularcatinJeanforgottofeedhercatTyehsetreerfdoarey.,meaningcanbepinneddownbytheuser,time,place,etc.Thecatcanbereferredtoanimal,mydear,Jassay,this,sheandsoon.(2) Sense语义Sensedenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.Itisanabstraction.Everywordthathasmeaninghassense.(noteverywordhasreference).Forexam

56、ple,probable,nearly,and,if,but,yes,noneofwhichreferstoanythingintheword,allhavesomesense.Justasonecantalkofthesameconceptindifferentindifferentlanguage,onecantalkofexpressionsindifferentdialectsofonelanguageashavingthesamesense:pavementinBritishEnglishandsidewalkinAmericanEnglishhavethesamesense.1 F

57、ourtypesofmotivationMotivationreferstotheconnectionbetweenword-symbolanditsmeaning.语言符号,Incaseofmotivation,thegreatmajorityofEnglishwordsarenotmotivated没有根据的,sincetheyareconventional,arbitrarysymbols.Nevertheless,Englishdoeshavewordswhosemeaningcanbeexplainedtoacertainextent.Motivationcanariseinfour

58、majorways:a) OnomatopoeticMotivation拟声理据Allthewordbasedonthesoundsmadebebirds,animals,insectsandsoonbelongtothiscategory.Butsuchechoicwordsarelargelyconventional,orthesoundswesayinEnglishmaynotbethesameinotherlanguage;baa-baadoesnotmean咩咩- PrimaryOnomatopoeia基本理据Itmeanstheimitationofsoundbysound.Heret