Functionalist Approaches to Translation

1、 FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION（功能学派）General IntroductionSkopos theory is an approach to translation which was developed in Germany in the late 1970s (by Vermeer 1978).It reflects a general shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and

2、 socioculturally oriented concept of translation. Origin: dissatisfied with the equivalence theory in professional practice and the relationship between translation theory and practice. This shift drew inspiration from communication theory, action theory, text linguistics as well as from movements i

3、n literary studies towards reception theories/reception aesthetics (which lays great emphasis on the role of readers of literary works) (接受理论/美学, see for example Iser 1978).Prominent German functionalists: Katharina Reiss, Justa Holz-Manttari, Hans J. Vermeer, Christiane Nord. Working at university

4、translator-training institutions.MAJOR REPRESENTATIVES瑟林娜瑟林娜赖斯赖斯(Katharina Reiss) 汉斯汉斯费米尔费米尔(Hans Vermeer)克里斯蒂安克里斯蒂安诺德诺德(Christiane Nord)贾斯塔贾斯塔赫兹赫兹曼塔利曼塔利(Justa Holz - Manttari) HANS J. VERMEERVermeers skopos theory: “Skopos” is a Greek word for “aim” or purpose”, a technical term for the aim or purp

5、ose of a translation.The aim of any translational action, and the mode in which it is to be realized, are negotiated with the client who commissions the action.Vermeers skopos theory is the most influential functional model of the German school/ the landmark of functional approaches to translation.

6、HANS J. VERMEERTrained as an interpreter by Reiss, hence Reisss student.Dissatisfied with the linguistics-oriented translation theory/Gave up the source-text-centered theory. Put forward famous skopos theory（目的论） Vermeer: Translation is a type of human action, an intentional, purposeful behavior tha

7、t takes place in a given situation. The skopos theory holds that “the way the target text eventually shapes up is determined to a great extent by the function, or skopos, intended for it in the target context” (Hatim, 2005: 74).Skopos theory was lfirst formulated in Vermeers paper “Framework for a G

8、eneral Translation Theory” (1978); lfurther developed in Vermeer and Reisss co-authored book Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation (1984), whch consists of two parts: Part I: a detailed explanation of Vermeers skopos theory (a general theory of translation); Part II: an introduction of Reis

9、ss specific theory, in which she tries to adapt her functional text-type model to the general theory.lBasic concepts of Vermeers skopos theory are extensively explained in Nords book Translating as a Purposeful Activity (1997).“The prime principle that any translation should observe is “skopos rule”

10、: the skopos (purpose) of any translation is going to fulfill decides the whole translating process. A skopos is essential to translation and it plays a direct and decisive role in what translation strategies a translator will adopt to fulfill his aim in the whole translation process.” (Vermeer, 197

11、8)HANS J. VERMEERThree key factors of skopos theory: The skopos (the purpose of translation), The skopos of the translation determines the translation methods and strategies that a translator may adopt in order to produce a functionally adequate translation.The addressee (the intended receiver of th

12、e target text), who determines the purpose of a translation.The source text (an offer of information) from which a translator selects what is most useful and important to his translation purpose, which enjoys much lower status. A target text is also an offer of information formulated by a translator

13、 in a target culture and language.Vermeer (1978) puts forward three rules guiding the translators decision, in his paper “Framework for a General Translation Theory”.Three principal rules of Skopos Theory:Skopos rule (目的原则), an overall principle in translationCoherence rule (连贯原则)Fidelity rule (忠实原则

14、) Skopos RuleThe top-ranking rule” for any translation is the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; that is, “the end justifies the means” by Reiss and Vermeer.Translation behavior is determined by the prospective function or purpose (skopos) of the target t

15、ext as expected by the translation initiator. Vermeer also stresses on many occasions that the skopos rule is a general rule, and translation strategies and methods are determined by the purpose and the intended function of the target text. pPragmatic texts must be goal-oriented, and so are their tr

16、anslations. For examples,Advertising texts are supposed to advertise; translation of advertising texts is determined by such a goal. Instructions for use are supposed to describe how an apparatus is to be assembled, handled and maintained; the more smoothly this is done, the better the instructions

17、evidently are.Newspaper reports are to inform the recipient, at least; the translation thus has to be comprehensible to the expected readership, i.e. the addressees.Coherence Rule (intratextual coherence语内连贯)translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend

18、 it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. Coherent with the receivers own communicative situation and culture.The target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receivers situation. In other words, the target text must be translated in such a wa

19、y that it is coherent for the target text receivers, given their circumstances and knowledge.In terms of coherence rule, the source text is no longer of most authority. It is only an offer of information for the translator, who in turn picks out what he considers to be meaningful in the receivers si

20、tuation. Fidelity Rule (intertextual coherence语际连贯) The translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text.Vermeer calls this relationship intertextual coherence or fidelity. This is postulated as a further principle, referred to as the fidelity rule by Reiss and Vermee

21、r in 1984.The fidelity rule merely states that there must be coherence between the translated version and the source text The Relationship among the Rules Fidelity rule is considered subordinate to coherence rule, and both of them are subordinate to the skopos rule.Of the three rules, the skopos rul

22、e is the top-ranking one, which must be given priority over any other rules in translating when there is a conflict among them.If the skopos requires a change of function, the criterion will no longer be fidelity to the source text, but adequacy or appropriateness with regard to the skopos. And if t

23、he skopos demands intra-textual incoherence, the standard of coherence rule is no longer vivid.HANS J. VERMEER Contribution of skopos theory: It moves translation theory beyond the static linguistic typologies of translation.Translation is no longer considered a merely linguistic process, but a purp

24、osful action.The translator is no longer a mechanical copier from source language to target language, but an expert in translational action. It allows the possibility of the same text being translated in different ways according to the purpose of the target text. It is not only widely practised in p

25、rofessional contexts, but also applied efficiently in the training of professional translators and interpreters. Katharina ReissTranslation Criticism-The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment (翻译批评的可能性与限制1971).Vermeers teacher. Reisss functional model

26、 of translation:There can hardly be absolute equivalence: two exceptions to the general purpose of achieving equivalence, when functionality or reader-orientedness takes precedence over equivalence (See Ma Huijuan, P78)In translation, there must be translation brief (i.e. instruction) which may vary

27、 from that in the original. Buhlers language functions: representation (描述) expression (表达) appeal (移情).Reisss functional text-type model/ theory of text typology:Based on Karl Buhlers functions of language, Reiss puts forward four types of text:Text-types: Informative text (content-focused)： Plain

28、communication of facts Expressive text (form-focused)： Creative compositionOperative text (appeal-focused)： Inducing behavioral responsesAudiomedial texts(视听媒体文本) e.g. movies, TV programs and commercialscf. New Marks theory on text typesThree main types of texts: Expressive text (表达功能文本) (semantic t

29、ranslation)Informative text (信息功能文本) (communicative translation)Vocative text (呼唤功能文本) (communicative translation) (Newmark, A Textbook of Translation, 1988) Newmark admits that few texts are purely expressive, informative or vocative (1988: 47) Specific translation methods suggested by Reiss:The TT

30、 of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST.The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST.The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver.Audio-medial texts require the “suppl

31、ementary” method.Text typesInformativeExpressiveOperativeLanguagefunctionRepresenting objects and facts Expressing senders attitude Making an appeal to text receiverLanguage dimension logicalaestheticdialogicText focusContent-focusedForm-focusedAppeal-focusedTT shouldTransmit referential contentTran

32、smit aesthetic formElicit desired responseTranslationMethod“plain prose”, explicitation as required“Identifying” method, adopt perspective of ST author Adaptive,equivalent effectINFORMATIVE-ExpressiveOperative reference work report lecture biography play poemsatireoperating instructionstourist broch

33、ureofficial speech sermonelectoral speechadvertisementReisss text types and text varietiesReiss & Vermeer: Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation (翻译理论基础1984):Reiss: presents her idea of correlating text type and translation method as a specific theory; adapts her functional text-type mo

34、del to the general theory;suggests the concept of “adequacy” in opposition to “equivalence”, which refers to the qualities of a target text with regard to the translation brief (指令,委任令) translation instruction given by the translation commissioner or the client (委托人) An adequate translation should b

35、e “adequate to” the requirements of the transaltion brief. 因此，翻译除目的性以外，另一个重要的特性就是委托性，即一个人从事翻译，要么出于自己的意愿，要么出于别人的意愿，无论哪种情形,他的行为都是为了完成一项委托。Within the framework of skopos theory, an adequate translation is goal-oriented and determined by the skopos of the translation.Justa Holz-Manttari: Entwurf fur ein

36、en Studiengan Translatorik und einen Promotions studiengang Translatologie (1985):Theory of translational action 行为理论. Which focuses on: the actional aspects of the translational process; the roles of the participants (sender, initiator, translator, user and receiver); the situational conditions (ti

37、me, place, and medium in which translation activities take place); the status of the translator, considered as the expert in the process of producing appropriate “message transmitters” in intercultural or transcultural cummunication.HOLZ-M NTARRI （行为理论）Drawing inspirations from action theory, Mantta

38、ri defines translation as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, i.e. “translational action” in her term.Holz-Mntarris (1984) Theory of translational action（行为理论） A translation process involvesThe initiator (翻译发起者)The commissioner (委托人)The ST producer (原文生产者)The TT producer (译文

39、生产者）The TT user (译文使用者)The TT receiver (译文接受者)Christiane Nords functional model: Functionality Plus Loyalty (功能加忠诚翻译观).Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained (1997). University of Heidelberg and University of Applied Sciences of Magdeburg (马德堡) in Germany (taught tr

40、anslation theory and practice).Many publications on translation theory, methodology and pedagogy. Text Analysis in Translation (1991); Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained (1997). Nords views about skopos theory: basically accepts it, but finds two limitations (th

41、e culture-specificity of translation models; the relationship between the translator and the source-text author).CHRISTIANE NORD: FUNCTIONALITY PLUS LOYALTYCHRISTIANE NORD (1943-)Nords own functional model: functionality plus loyalty. It means: the translator should aim at producing functional targe

42、t text which conforms to the requirements of the translation skopos fixed by the initiator, at the same time respecting the legitimate interests of both the author of the original and the readers of the translation. Function: the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target

43、 situation.Loyalty: the translators responsibility toward the source-text author, the initiator and the target recipient. CHRISTIANE NORD “Loyalty” is different from “fidelity” or “faithfulness”.Loyalty: an interpersonal category referring to a social relationship between people; an ethical and mora

44、l concept aimed to limit the radical functionalism in translation practice. Fidelity or faithfulness: referring to the relationship between source text and target text.“Adequacy (充分性) for a given purpose”: alternative to the concept of equivalence.CHRISTIANE NORD Two basic types of translation: Docu

45、mentary translation and Instrumentary translation. (马慧娟, P113-116)Documentary translation (文献型翻译) (metatextual function informing the target reader about certain aspects of the original text and its communicative situation): interlineal translation (word-for-word trans.), literal translation, philol

46、ogical translation (cultural explanation)文献学翻译literal translation, added by necessary cultural or (meta-)linguistic information in footnotes or glossaries (直译+脚注/尾注). e.g. trans. of classical textsexoticising translation (foreignization in literary trans.)Instrumentary translation (工具型翻译): Equifunct

47、ional (同功能)translation if the function of the target text is the same as that of the original. e.g. translation of technical texts, instructions for use.Heterofunctional (异功能) translation if the function(s) cannot be reproduced.Homologous (类似功能) translation intended to achieve homologous function and effect. e