语言学基本定义

1、语言 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by social group for communication.Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.Productivity： language is resourceful because of its duality and its reclusiveness. We can use it to create new

2、 meanings.Duality：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Displacement：human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and co

3、ncepts which are not present (in time and spare) at the movement of communication.Cultural transmission：language is not genetically inherited. Passed from generation to generation, it requires some learning. It is true human are born with language capacity, but a particular language a person learns

4、to speak is a cultural one, rather than a genetic one like the dogs' barking system.Interchangeability：any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Language function：informative: language is the instrument of thought, record the facts.The use of language to record the facts is

5、 a prerequisite of social development.Interpersonal: by far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative: the performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of personsEmotive： to change

6、the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.Phatic communion： we all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual contents.Recreational： the recreational function of a language is oft

7、en overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness.Metalingual： our language can be used to talk about itself. Sociolinguisticsthe study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguisticsthe study of language with reference to theworking of the min

8、d.Applied linguisticsthe application of linguistic principles andtheories to language teaching and learning.Important distinctions in linguistics： 规定性 Prescriptive 描述 性 Descriptive /8.共时语言学 Synchronical linguistics 7.历时语言 学 Diachronic linguistics /5.语言能力 Competence 6.语言运用 performance /9. 语言 langue 1

9、0. Win parole /speech, writing/ traditional grammar and modern linguistics 第二章音系学1 Phonologyis the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2 interna

10、tional phonetic alphabetA set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart, designed by the international phonetic association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.3 consonants and vowelsConsonant are produced

11、 by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing, which is so marked that air can not escape without producing audible friction.Vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.4 cardinal vowelAre a set of vowel qualities arbitra

12、rily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing language.5 anticipatory and perseverative co-articulationwhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, we call the process co-articulation.If the sound

13、 becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory co-articulation. If the sound shows the influence of the proceeding sound, it is perseverative co-articulation.6PhonemeThe smallest of sound which can distinguish two words7AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in

14、 different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.8Minimal pairAre two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.9free variationif two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is the substitut

15、ion of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two words are in free variation.Chapter three 词汇学The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon. Words are the smallest free units of language that un

16、ite sounds with meaning.Word ：A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Lexeme： the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical context

17、s.Grammatical/Functional words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/content words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Open-class words: a word group whose me

18、mbership is in principle in finite or unlimited. New members can be added.Closed-class words: a word group whose membership is fixed or limited, new members are not regularly added.Morphology; the study of word formation, the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morph

19、emes: the smallest unit language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselve

20、s.Bound morphemes; those that can not occur aloneRoot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional affixes and derivational affixes have been removed.Affix： the types of formative/morphe

21、me that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Base: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word formation is applied.Stem： the part of the word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.Inflection： indicates grammatical relati

22、ons by adding inflectional affixes.Derivation： combination of an existing word and an affix to form a new word.Compounding composition is word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word-An Introduction to Modern Linguistics.Endocentric： one element

23、serves as the head, of same syntactic class as the whole the relationship of 'a kind of'.Exocentric: there is no head, no elements is of the same syntactic class as the whole, so not a relationship of 'a kind of ' something. Derivation: is also called 'affixation . It is the morp

24、hological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base.Conversion： is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech to anther without the addition or deletion of any morpheme.Allomorph： some morphemes have a single form in all contexts. But a

25、morpheme may have considerable variations, alternate shapes or phonetic forms called the allomorph.Blending: a process of word-information in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full form

26、s. Back-formation： a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.Acronym： words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term, etc. it differs from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as

27、 sequence of letter.Initialism： a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.Analogical creation: It can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, I the conjugation of som

28、e English verbs. Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation.Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.Chapter 4 syntaxSyntax： the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a langua

29、ge, or simply the study of the formation of sentences.Category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.Phrase： is a single element of structure containing more than one w

30、ord, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.Word group is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.Clause： a constituent with its own subjects and predicate when it is included in a lager sentence.Syntagmat

31、ic is a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.grammatical construction; any syntactic construct which is ass

32、igned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger ling

33、uistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents, which serves as the center or head of the whole.Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where n

34、one of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable ,Centre" or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate construction, and the connective construction.Subordinate construction those in

35、which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, Coordinate construction：there are more than one head, the head can stand for the original construction functionally.Deep structure： the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a constructi

36、onSurface structure： the final stage in syntactic derivation of a construction.Chapter five SemanticsDenotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning.Connotation-opposite to denotation, mea

37、ns the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense be defined as the semantics relations between one word and another, or more generally between the one linguistic unit and another.Reference： is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to , or more generally between a linguistic unit and non