词汇学Chapter5Senserelations2

1、Chapter 5 Sense relationsTypes of sense relations Polysemy (一词多义关系一词多义关系) Homonymy (同形或同音异义关系同形或同音异义关系) Synonymy (同义关系同义关系)-semantic similarity Antonymy (反义关系反义关系)-semantic opposition Hyponymy (上下义关系上下义关系)-semantic inclusionLead-in A man who was involved in a serious motorcycle accident was unable t

2、o speak when he first regained consciousness. Whishing to know how long he had been unconscious, he took a piece of paper and a pencil from the bedside and, after writing “date?” on it, gave it to his nurse. She handed it back to him after she had written the word “Married” on it.definition of polys

3、emy When a word is first coined, it is always the case (true) that it has only one meaning (monosemic). But in the course of development, the same symbol may be used to express new meanings. The result is polysemy. Polysemy shows the economy and efficiency of human languages. Polysemy: the same word

4、 may have a set of different meanings.Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. Eg. government: 治理国家； 政府 blanket: 羊毛毯；给盖羊毛毯 “get”: 150 meanings “cut”: 120 meanings Two approaches to polysemy Diachronic approach历时研究方法 It is assumed to be the result of growth and dev

5、elopment of the semantic structure of one and same word.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。 The first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义. Later meanings are called derived meanings派生意义. Synchronic approach共时研究方法 Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a histo

6、rical period of time. 从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。 The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derived meanings are secondary in comparison. Two approaches to polysemyTwo processes of development 1) Radiation辐射型辐射型 2) Concatenation连锁型连锁型Radiation辐射型辐射型 Semantically, radi

7、ation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义学上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。 All the meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the centr

8、al meaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义。Radiation Example: facethe front of the head(Primary Meaning)outward appearance(Derived Meaning)a person(Derived Meaning)self-respect(Derived Meaning)the surface of a thing(Derived Meaning)countenance(Derived Meaning)We can get the derived meanings by extension, nar

9、rowing, analogy, transfer, etc. Concatenation连锁型连锁型 Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的

10、意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。 例1：board：木板餐桌会议桌董事会 例2：candidate：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人 E.g. candidate： 1) white-roped 2) office seeker in white gowns 3) a person who seeks an office 4) a person proposed for a place, award, etc. 1) 2) 3) 4) Concatenation Example: candidateAa person dresse

11、d in whiteA+Ba white robed applicant for office (because the Romans wore white robes when standing for office)B a person taking an examinationbridging contextThere is no connection between A and B, because the middle link (A+B) has vanished. The primary meaning A has also vanished. Now the derived m

12、eaning has become the central meaning. 3) radiation + concatenation BE A C F G Dradiation + concatenation 综合性： 词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（proliferation）example face: 在古英语里的意思是“脸”。在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了 “人的外表、外观、态度”等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了“表情”的意思；通

13、过隐喻使词义转变为“尊严”。 在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为“任何东西的外表、表面”。 多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的。radiation + concatenation ones wholeattitudefacean expressionon the facereputationones wholeappearancethesurfaceofanything How to master the different meanings of a polysemic word?relations between senses sense relations of polyse

14、my1.2.1 original meaning vs. extended meaning 原始意义vs.引申意义1.2.2 universal meaning vs. particular meaning 普遍意义vs.特殊意义1.2.3 abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning 抽象意vs.特殊意义1.2.4 literal meaning vs. figurative meaning字面意义vs.比喻意义original meaning vs. extended meaning Etymologyoriginal meaning: no practica

15、l useextended meaning: in use E.g. Original extendedCandidate 穿白衣服的人 Pen 羽毛 More examples: climate 原始意义引申意义 Greek “klimax”=slope The Greeks thought that the earth sloped toward the north and that this affected the weather. 1.2.2 universal meaning vs. specific meaning E.g. “disease ” a) The business

16、of doctors is to prevent and cure disease. b) Measles and flu are common diseases. a) 泛指“疾病” b) 特指“某种疾病” More examples Fish Fruit1.2.3 abstract meaning vs. concrete meaning E.g. “envy” a) He was filled with envy of me. a)中,envy 有“妒嫉、羡慕”的抽象意义 b) His splendid new car was the envy of all his friends. b

17、)中, envy 则指“羡慕的对象”这一具体意义 entry “进入” “入口” beauty “美丽” “美人” Pride “骄傲” “一个使人引以为骄的人”1.2.4 literal meaning vs. figurative meaning Eg. “mirror” His diary is a mirror of the times he lived in. “反映真象之物” “fragrant” fragrant flowers “芳香的” fragrant memories “愉快的,甜蜜的”II. Homonymy同形异义 contents 1. definition of

18、homonyms 2.types of homonyms 3.origins of forming homonyms 4.stylistic value of homonymy and polysemy Sofa, couch Tale, tail Bat the animal, bat for hitting baseballs Two, tooDefinition of Homonymy 1. identical in sound and spelling 2. identical in sound 3. identical in spelling II. Homonymy同形异义 Hom

19、onyms(同行异义词) are different words with the same form (spelling or pronunciation) E.g. light（光）light（轻的）； bark（吠） bark（树皮）； flower（花） flour（面粉）； vain（徒劳的）vein（静脉）vane（风向标）； tear（眼泪）tear（撕）； lead（率领）lead（铅）等。Three types of homonyms2.1 Perfect homonyms完全同形同音异义词 2.2 Homophones同音异义词 2.3 homograph / hetero

20、nym同形异音异义词 Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. 2.1 perfect homonym They are different words identical both in sound and spelling, though different in meaning. E.g. 1)pop pop p p/n 流行歌曲 popp pn爸爸 popp pn砰的一声 2)last last la:sta最后的 lastla:stv持续 lastla:stn鞋楦

21、头 3). scale scaleskeiln鱼鳞 scaleskeiln天平 scaleskeiln标度 scaleskeilv攀登 4)mean mean mi:nv意指 meanmi:na卑鄙的 meanmi:na中间的 5)tense tense tensn时态 tensetensa拉紧的2.2 homophone They are different words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. E.G: capital; capitol dew; due die; dye dual; duel(决斗)

22、 cheap; cheep（吱吱） 在英语的同形异义词中,同音异义词数量最多。More examples Weak Way Wait Waist Vein Waive（免除） Wood Tail Week Weigh Weight Waste Vain Wave Would Tale Flee Flour （面粉） Foul Flu Feet Flair （天资） Heal （治愈） Hear Hair Heard hoarse （沙哑的） Flea（跳蚤） Flower Fowl （家禽） Flew Feat （壮举） Flare （闪光） Heel Here Hare （野兔） Herd

23、（兽群） horseActivity: give the homophones to the words on the left Pray Principal Profit Rain Road Rap（敲击） Ring Read Sail See seen Prey（捕食） Principle Prophet（预言者） Rein; reign Rode Wrap（包裹） Wring（拧） Reed（芦苇） Sale See scene See Sew（缝合） Seam（缝合） Son Steal Sear（烤焦的） Sight Soar（翱翔） Some stair Sea So Seem S

24、un Steel Seer Site Sore Sum（总数） stare2.3 homograph / heteronym 同形异义词 Homographs/heteronyms are different words identical in spelling, but different in sound or meaning. Eg. Bow She wears a bow in her hair. Bow to the audience at the end. close Please close the door. She sat close to him. content The

25、 content of the talk is simple. I am content to just stay home. convert She is a convert to exercise. She will convert the machine. digest You will digest your food in time. I never read Readers Digest.2.4 Origins of forming homonyms Change in sound and spelling 读音和拼写演变的结果 ear: an organ with which t

26、o listen and hear ear: the grain-bearing spike of corn or wheat (谷穗)long: not shortlong: to want very muchBorrowing借入外来词的结果 fair: a market, borrowed from feria (l)fair: pretty from fger (oe)ball: a round object to play with from beallu (oe)ball: a dance party, borrowed from baller (OF) Shortening 词语

27、缩略的结果Ad: advertisementadd: to cause an increaserock: from rock and rollrock: a large mass of stoneNOW: National Organization of Womennow: at present2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms 修辞特征 As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns f

28、or desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.(1) Q: Why is the A like a flower? (2) Q: Why should a man never tell his secrets in a cornfield? (3) Q: Why is the Middle Ages also called the Dark Ages? (4) Q: Why were the little drops of ink crying? (1) Q: Why is the A like a flower? A: Becau

29、se the B(bee) is after it. (2) Q: Why should a man never tell his secrets in a cornfield? A: Because it has so many ears. (3)Q: Why is the Middle Ages also called the Dark Ages? A: Because there were so many Knights.(4) Q: Why were the little drops of ink crying? A: Their mother was in the pen(priso

30、n) and they did not know how long her sentence would be. 1) King： my cousin Hamlet，and my sonhow is it that the clouds still hang on you？ Hamlet：Not so，my lord，I am too much in the sun Shakespeare：(Hamlet） 国王：侄儿哈姆雷特，我的儿啊怎么回事，你还是满脸阴霾？ 哈姆雷特：不见得，陛下，我是阳光晒得够了。 son（儿子）和sun（太阳）是同音词。Hamlet对叔父称自己为儿子极为反感，但他又不

31、能锋芒毕露，回答“too much in the sun（son）”，既可以表示“阳光（sun）晒得足够”，又可暗示“屈作儿子（son）太久”。此处的双关语表现了他压抑已久的愤懑。 2) “Mine is a long and a sad tale！”said the Mouse，turning to Alice and sighing “It is a long tail，certainly，”said Alice，looking down with wonder at the Mouses tail；“ but why do you call it sad？” （LCaroll：Alice

32、s Adventures in Wonderland） “How is bread made?”“I know that!” Alice cried eagerly. “You take some flour.”“Where do you pick the flower?” the White Queen asked. “In a garden, or in the hedges?”“Well, it isnt picked at all,” Alice explained: “its ground.”“How many acres of ground?” said the White Que

33、en.III. How to differentiate polysemy from perfect homonymy? The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that: Homonyms refer to different lexemes (词位)which have the same form. Polysemants refer to the one and same lexeme which has several distinguishable meanings.Di

34、fferentiation of perfect homonyms from polysemous wordsdifferent lexemes which have the same formthe same lexeme which has several different meanings polysemous words perfect homonyms developed from the same sourcehaving different sources 一般地说，多义词是一词多义，几一般地说，多义词是一词多义，几个意义之间有历史的或现实的联系，个意义之间有历史的或现实的联系

35、，它们都是从一个基本意义派生出来它们都是从一个基本意义派生出来的，有的，有“同源、同族同源、同族”的关系，而的关系，而同形同音异义词则是同一拼写或同同形同音异义词则是同一拼写或同一发音，但在意义上大多没有任何一发音，但在意义上大多没有任何历史的或现实的联系，它们非同出历史的或现实的联系，它们非同出一源，而只是读音和拼写上的偶合。一源，而只是读音和拼写上的偶合。在词典中，同形同音词通常以独立在词典中，同形同音词通常以独立项分立，而多义词的各不同义项则项分立，而多义词的各不同义项则全部列在同一词项下。全部列在同一词项下。etymologyspellingpronunciationmeaningPe

36、rfect homonymsdssdHomophoneddsdHomographHeteronymdsddEtymological doubletssdddPolysemy sssdetymologyspellingpronunciationmeaningPerfect homonymsdssdHomophoneddsdHomographHeteronymdsddEtymological doubletssdddPolysemy sssdIII. Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms in translation 得其形不如得其势，得其势不如得其韵，得其韵不如得其性 得： 形： 势： 韵

37、： 性： Better to _ the _than the _ of the scenery, the _ than the _, and the _ than the _get, gain, obtain, acquire, capture, catch, secure, procure, earnform, shape, body, look, image, appearancecharacteristics, personality, nature, property, attribute, qualityforce, influence, power, strength, vigor

38、charm, appeal, beauty, mannercapturevigorshapecharmvigornaturecharmSynonymy同义关系同义关系1.Definition of synonymsSynonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.同义词是发音和拼写不同但在意义上极为相似或完全相同的词。Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of sp

39、eech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym.同义词在外延意义和词性上要具有相似性。wordwordsynonymsynonymexampleexampleheadhead chief, boss, chief, boss, leaderleadera head of state,a head of state,a department heada department headheadhead mind, mind, imaginationimaginationto use ones headto use ones head

40、headhead lifelifeIt cost him his head.It cost him his head.headhead toptopheadlineheadlineheadhead frontfront headlight, headwindheadlight, headwinddefinition Definition: (GK, syn-with, sharing; onym-name) words differing in forms but identical or similar in meaning. This definition is vague and not

41、 accurate. Why? 1.No polysemic word could have the same synonymous word for all its meanings. Headchief leader administrator, supervisor A good head for history To use your head It cost him his head 2. Only the denotative meaning can be said to be identical or similar statesmenpolitician adultgrown-

42、upDefinition : synonyms are words similar in essential or generic meaning, but different in form and associative meaning. Sense relationsaptitude, talentimagination, mindlife(different affective meaning)(different stylist meaning)TEM8 200139. The sameness or close similarity of meaning refers toA po

43、lysemyB homonymyC antonymyD synonymy Types of synonyms There are two kinds of synonyms: Absolute (complete or perfect) synonyms 绝对同义词 Relative synonyms 相对同义词Sense relationsTEM8 200639. The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples ofA dialectal synonymsB stylistic synonymsC emotive synonymsD colloc

44、ational synonymsAbsolute synonyms are fully identical and can be interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in associative meaning. Rare, but exist; usually scientific terms. word-formation-word-building compounding-composition breathed consonant-voiceless consonantSense relatio

45、nsRelative synonyms “Words are seldom exactly synonymous” -Dr. Johnson quasi-synonym, near-synonym words that are similar in denotations, but differing in shade of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.Sense relationsThe act of cryingsynonymsDiscrimination of sensesweepstresses the sheddin

46、g of tearssobto weep with a catch in the voicewhimperto cry with low, whining, broken soundsmoana low, prolonged, mournful soundblubberused chiefly of children, implies a contortion of the face with weeping and broken, inarticulate speech weepsob Sources of synomys1.borrowing of words from L and F.

47、Doublets成对词 Triplets三词词组1.Dialects and regional English2.Figurative use of words3.Phrases idiomatic expressionsNative （more spontaneous, informal unpretentious)Borrowed (learned, abstract abstrue)hideconceal (L.)fraternal (L.)Sense relationsbellystomachabdomenfireflameconflagrationliftelevatortubesu

48、bwaypetrolgasolinecall boxtelephone boothglamour (ScotE)occupationwalk of lifedreamerstar-gazerdrunkelevatedliedistort the factpick upchoosegive upabandongo on with continueput offpostpone Sources of synonyms Borrowing Native Borrowed roomchamberfoe enemy help aidleave departbodilycorporal Sense rel

49、ations Sources of synonyms Borrowing Native FrenchLatintimeageepochbellystomachabdomenfireflameconflagrationaskquestioninterrogate Sources of synonyms Dialects and regional Englishliftelevatortubesubwaypetrolgasolinecall boxtelephone boothcharmglamour (ScotE)Sense relations Sources of synonyms Figur

50、ative and euphemistic of wordsoccupationwalk of lifedreamerstar-gazerdrunkelevatedliedistort the factSense relations Sources of synonyms Coincidence with idiomatic expressionspick upchoosegive upabandongo on with continueput offpostponewingain the upper handhesitatebe in two mindsSense relations dis

51、crimination of synonyms 1. difference in shades of meaning(细微差别) Differ in range Red, scarlet, pink; understand, comprehend cry, sob, Weep, wail, howl那婆娘却号号地假哭起养家人来。看官听说，原来但凡世上妇人哭有三样。有泪有声谓之哭，有泪无声谓之泣，无泪有声谓之号。当下那妇人干嚎了半夜。 Sometimes they sob with tears and sounds; sometimes they weep with tears but no s

52、ounds; and sometimes they wail with sounds but no tears. Golden Lotus howl for half the night, but not a tear accompanied her.sky ME ONheaven native English wordthe physical firmament (天空) and the spiritual realm of God and the angels(天堂)skythe physical firmamentheaventhe spiritual realm of God and

53、the angelsDifference 1: degree of a given quality/shades of meaningWordWordShades of meaningShades of meaningangerThe most general term, suggests no definite degree of intensity, and carries no necessary implication of outward manifestation.rageoften implies a loss of self-control.furythe strongest

54、word in the group, suggests a rage so violent that it may approach madness.indignationdenotes anger based on a moral condemnation of something felt to be wrong and unfair.wrathNow limited in use to literature and figures of speech, suggests a strong anger directed at some specific person or thing. a

55、ngeranger Differ in intensity众所周知，王母娘娘的真身长发蓬乱、面目狰狞，乃是狮发虎齿豹尾的半兽人，虽然喝了瑶池玉液后幻化成雍容华贵的美女模样，可脾气依旧暴烈，一生气就跑到山顶虎啸狮吼，吓得满山仙鸟扑腾、神兽乱窜。一生气 Anger, fury, wrath, indignation, rage, irritation, annoyanceAs it known to all, the Mother Queen, originally a half man and half beast with disheveled lion hair, ferocious loo

56、k with tiger teeth and leopard tail, was transformed into a graceful and honorable beauty. However she still kept her fierce temper. In fury, she would howl and roar like tiger and lion on the top of mountain so as to put all the celestial birds and animals in chaos and panic. Small, tiny, diminutiv

57、e, minute, microscopic, infinitesimalDifference 2: dialectal difference Some synonym pairs differ in that they belong to different dialects of English. The dialects in question may be one of the national standards, e.g. British, American or Australian English; or they may be a regional dialect withi

58、n a country or area, e.g. West Midland, South-West dialect of British English.Synonym pairs in British and American EnglishBrEAmEtubesubwaycaravantrailercall boxtelephone boothliftelevatorpavementsidewalkrefuse/rubbishgarbagepetrolgasolineSynonym pairs from standard British and northern British Engl

59、ishhanyway anyroadarmpitoxterchild bairnmoney brassnothing nowtsandwich buttyDifference 3: connotationwordwordconnotationconnotationambiguousequivocal (deliberately)hateloathe (with repugnance or disgust)misuseabuse (of privilege or power)new novel (strikingly)recollectionreminiscence (with pleasure

60、)simulatefeign (with craftiness)Difference 4: affective meaningappreciative/ favourableappreciative/ favourable derogatory/ derogatory/ unfavourableunfavourablethrifty/frugalniggardly/miserlybraveryfoolhardinessfirmpigheadedintellectualeggheadblackniggerDifference 5: stylistic meaningman (formal)cha