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1、lantern-lit house greatly contributes to the readers sense of unease, and so helps to build the storys effectiveness. another example is lawrences “the horse dealers daughter,” the description at the beginning of which contributes much to the atmosphere of the story. 4. the importance of atmosphere

2、in creating the setting but it is a mistake to say that the atmosphere of a piece of fiction depends on the setting alone. (as illustrated in shakespeares hamlet, the dialogue at the very beginning of the play helps powerfully to establish the atmosphere of uncertainty, in addition to the settingthe

3、 cold midnight castle.) the vocabulary, the figures of speech, and the rhythm of the sentence also help define the general atmosphere, for by these factors the writer manages to control the kind of associations that come to the readers mind. atmosphere also depends on character and action. in short,

4、 we may say that the atmosphere of fiction is the pervasive, general feeling, generated by a number of factors (setting, character, action, and style) that is characteristic of a given story or novel. chapter five point of view the issue of point of view is highly philosophical, because it concerns

5、the relation between the novelist and the “facts” in the novel, the relation between the novelist and the reader, and the relation between the novel and the reader. the point of view is the attitude or outlook of a narrator or character in a piece of literature, or it is the relationship between the

6、 narrator and the narrated. metaphorically, a point of view is a standpoint from which the narrator sees the story and how he intends the reader to see the story. when we open a novel, we open a window to life. what a vision the novel provides largely depends on the point of view. fictional prose an

7、d point of view as we know there are at least levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional prose (no matter it is a novel or a short story), just because the narrator level intervenes between the character-character level and the author-reader level. from the diagram shown below you

8、will see: addresser 1 message addressee 1 (novelist) (reader) addresser 2 message addressee 2 (narrator) (narratee) addresser 3 message addressee 3 (character a) (character b) this diagram only accounts for the novel “in general” in the sense that all three levels, and all three pairs of participant

9、s are needed to explain how the novel works as a form. but any particular novel may neutralize some of the distinctions, multiply others, or do both at the same time. the fact that there are six participants in the basic discourse structure for the novel automatically means that there are more viewp

10、oints to be taken into account in the novel than in other genres (e.g. poetry). but the opportunities in particular novels for multiplying the number of viewpoints to be considered, and related to one another, are myriad. it is thus hardly surprising that the novel has become the genre where writers

11、 have explored viewpoints extensively. what is a narrator? a narrator is the one who tells the story, often called the storyteller. but the narrator is not necessary the novelist. even when the novel is written in the first person, the “i” is not the novelist, but a person invented by the novelist.

12、the logic is that a fictional world, if disturbed by a real person, will collapse. kinds of point of view point of view can be divide by the narrators relationship with the character, represented by the grammatical person: the first-person narrative and the third-person narrative. i-narrators the pe

13、rson who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. in this case the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or i-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun i is

14、 used. in the first-narrative, the narrator appears in the novel as “i” or “me”. he may tell a story in which he himself is the hero as in the adventures of huckleberry finn, or he may tell a story in which he is only a minor character as in the great gatsby. anyway, the narrator is a participant in

15、 the events. by assuming the identity as “i”, the narrator endears himself to the reader while he has to sacrifice the privilege of omniscience. b. third-person narrators if the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference

16、 to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they. this second main type of narrator is arguably the dominant narrator type. in the third-person narrative, the narrator does not actually appear and all the characters are

17、 referred to as “he” or “they”. as a hidden observer, the narrator is privileged to know all the happenings or what he chooses to know, not only what actually happens, but also what goes on in the minds of the characters. in short, the narrator is free to be omniscient, or selectively omniscient, or

18、 to both alternating. in war and peace the narrator enjoys omniscience. in the ambassador the narrator confines his field of vision to that of a character and relates the story in the characters point of view. this character is a center and all others are laid out in due perspective. point of view c

19、an be divided by the narrators relation with the eventswhether the narrator participates or not: the participant narrator and the nonparticpant narrator. the participant narrator is a person who has experienced something and comes back to report. ishmael in moby dick is a good example. as a particip

20、ant, the narrator may take an active or passive role in the event. his report and understanding of the event may or may not be reliable or complete, because he is denied omniscience and he may be prejudiced. the nonparticipant narrator stands outside what he is relating and therefore, he is given co

21、mplete freedom as for what he wishes to do with the story. so point of view can be divided by the extent of the narrators knowledge of the events: the omniscient narrator, the selective omniscient narrator, the objective narrator and the so-called “innocent eye”. the omniscient narrator knows everyt

22、hing whereas the selective omniscient narrator knows something. the objective narrator does not tell but shows. he is like a camera that goes from scene to scene and records what can be recorded for the reader. this kind of point of view is also called the dramatic point of view because the reader i

23、s like the audience in a theater. the innocent-eye narrator understands what he is relating less than the reader does. therefore, his narration is capable of irony. a narrator is governed simultaneously by all the three standards mentioned above; therefore, the different points of view he may adopt

24、overlap each other. the table below shows the overlapping between each narrative point of view. schema-oriented language viewpoint is also schema-oriented. it is worth noting that different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, related to their different viewpoints. hence s

25、hopkeepers and their customers will have shop schemas which in many respects will be mirror images of one another, and the success of shopkeepers will depend in part on their being able to take into account the schemas and points of view of their customers. (in my view, the more different participan

26、ts in the same situation of a novel, the more different viewpoints will appear, and the more different schemas will appear too.) besides indicating viewpoints by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particular through expressions which are evaluative in n

27、ature: she opened the door of her grimy, branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. the porter was nowhere, of course, but there was harry there, on the sordid little station under the furnaces. in this passage from d.h. lawrences fanny and annie, the value-laden adjectives grimy and sord

28、id in grimy, branch-line carriage and sordid little station under the furnaces help mark the description of morley railway station as being from the viewpoint of fanny, who clearly disapproves. given vs new information at the beginning of a story, we should thus be able to predict that narrative ref

29、erence to everything in the fiction except items generally assumed by everyone in our culture (e.g. the sun) must be new, and hence should display indefinite reference. this is what happens, for example, at the beginning of thomas hardys the mayor of casterbridge. one evening of late summer, before

30、the nineteenth century had reached one third of its span, a young man and woman, the latter carrying a child, were approaching the large village of weydon-priors, in upper wessex, on foot. the first mention of the man (and by implication the woman) and the child have indefinite reference (a young ma

31、n woman, a child) because we have not met them before. as a consequence, we tend to get a distanced “bird s-eye view” of the characters. the nineteenth century has definite reference because hardy can assume that his readers will already know what the phrase refers to. but note that even in this str

32、aightforward description, the village of weydon-piors gets definite reference for its first mention, encouraging us to pretend to ourselves that we are already familiar with it. hardy is thus “positioning” his readers as people who are familiar to some extent with the village (and hence the area) bu

33、t not the characters. deixis because deixis is speaker-related it can easily be used to indicate particular, and changing, viewpoint. in the following example from the secret agent, we see mrs. verlocs actions from mr. verlocs viewpoint: mr. verloc heard the creaky plank in the floor and was content

34、. he waited. mrs. verloc was coming. in addition to the perception and cognition verbs heard and waited and the indication of his inner mental state (was content) we can see that mrs. verlocs movement towards her husband is viewed from mr. verlocs position (coming). the fact that the events are only

35、 seen from mr. verlocs viewpoint is strategically important at this point in the novel. he does not realize that his wife is about to kill him. exercise: to understand the differences between points of view, study the aesops fable. the ant and the grasshopper weary in every limb, the ant tugged over

36、 the snow a piece of corn he had stored up last summer. it would taste might good at dinner tonight. a grasshopper, cold and hungry, looked on. finally he could bear it no longer. “please, friend ant, may i have a bite of corn?” “what were you doing all last summer?” asked the ant. he looked the gra

37、sshopper up and down. he knew its kind. “i sang from dawn till dark,” replied the grasshopper, happily unaware of what was coming next. “well,” said the ant, hardly bothering to conceal his contempt, “since you sang all summer, you can dance all winter.” he who idles when he is young will have nothi

38、ng when he is old. questions in what point of view is the fable narrated? rewrite the fable in third-person, selective omniscient point of view. first-person point of view (the ant being the narrator). first-person point of view (the grasshopper being the narrator). objective point of view. chapter

39、six style what is style? “proper words in proper places, makes the true definition of a style.” jonathan swifts remarks lead us generally to thinking of modes of expression of a piece of fiction as the most characteristic of the authors style. thus style generally refers to how the author uses langu

40、age in his/her work: to the authors particular ways of managing words that we come to recognize as habitual or customary. a distinctive style marks the work of a fine writer: we can tell latin expression: stilus virus arguit (“the style proclaims the man”), and for this matter we are familiar with t

41、he experience of trying to guess the author of a piece of writing on the evidence of his/her language. actually, style is a combination of two elements, the idea to be expressed and the linguistic traits or characteristics of the author. it is, as j.r. lowell said, “the establishment of a perfect mu

42、tual understanding between the worker and his material”. however, there has never been an agreement on the exact meaning of style in the history of literary criticism, and the further narrowing of its meaning brings us on to more controversial ground, where different definitions of style involve eve

43、n conflicting views of the use of language in literature. there is a strong tradition of thought which restricts style to choices of manner rather than matter, of expression rather than content. such separation between form and meaning is implied in the common definition of style as a “way of writin

44、g” or “mode of expression.” there is equally a strong literary tradition that emphasizes the inseparability between style and content; in flauberts words: “it is like body and soul: form and content to me are one.” the distinction between what a writer wants to say and how it is presented to the rea

45、der underlies one of the early and persistent concepts of style: style as the “dress of thought,” as wesley put it: style is the dress of thought; a modest dress, neat, but not gaudy, will true critics please. this metaphor resonates with renaissance and neo-classicist pronouncements on style. for e

46、xample, the idea that style is lantern-lit house greatly contributes to the readers sense of unease, and so helps to build the storys effectiveness. another example is lawrences “the horse dealers daughter,” the description at the beginning of which contributes much to the atmosphere of the story. 4

47、. the importance of atmosphere in creating the setting but it is a mistake to say that the atmosphere of a piece of fiction depends on the setting alone. (as illustrated in shakespeares hamlet, the dialogue at the very beginning of the play helps powerfully to establish the atmosphere of uncertainty

48、, in addition to the settingthe cold midnight castle.) the vocabulary, the figures of speech, and the rhythm of the sentence also help define the general atmosphere, for by these factors the writer manages to control the kind of associations that come to the readers mind. atmosphere also depends on

49、character and action. in short, we may say that the atmosphere of fiction is the pervasive, general feeling, generated by a number of factors (setting, character, action, and style) that is characteristic of a given story or novel. chapter five point of view the issue of point of view is highly phil

50、osophical, because it concerns the relation between the novelist and the “facts” in the novel, the relation between the novelist and the reader, and the relation between the novel and the reader. the point of view is the attitude or outlook of a narrator or character in a piece of literature, or it

51、is the relationship between the narrator and the narrated. metaphorically, a point of view is a standpoint from which the narrator sees the story and how he intends the reader to see the story. when we open a novel, we open a window to life. what a vision the novel provides largely depends on the po

52、int of view. fictional prose and point of view as we know there are at least levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional prose (no matter it is a novel or a short story), just because the narrator level intervenes between the character-character level and the author-reader level. fr

53、om the diagram shown below you will see: addresser 1 message addressee 1 (novelist) (reader) addresser 2 message addressee 2 (narrator) (narratee) addresser 3 message addressee 3 (character a) (character b) this diagram only accounts for the novel “in general” in the sense that all three levels, and

54、 all three pairs of participants are needed to explain how the novel works as a form. but any particular novel may neutralize some of the distinctions, multiply others, or do both at the same time. the fact that there are six participants in the basic discourse structure for the novel automatically

55、means that there are more viewpoints to be taken into account in the novel than in other genres (e.g. poetry). but the opportunities in particular novels for multiplying the number of viewpoints to be considered, and related to one another, are myriad. it is thus hardly surprising that the novel has

56、 become the genre where writers have explored viewpoints extensively. what is a narrator? a narrator is the one who tells the story, often called the storyteller. but the narrator is not necessary the novelist. even when the novel is written in the first person, the “i” is not the novelist, but a pe

57、rson invented by the novelist. the logic is that a fictional world, if disturbed by a real person, will collapse. kinds of point of view point of view can be divide by the narrators relationship with the character, represented by the grammatical person: the first-person narrative and the third-perso

58、n narrative. i-narrators the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. in this case the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or i-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the stor

59、y the first person pronoun i is used. in the first-narrative, the narrator appears in the novel as “i” or “me”. he may tell a story in which he himself is the hero as in the adventures of huckleberry finn, or he may tell a story in which he is only a minor character as in the great gatsby. anyway, t

60、he narrator is a participant in the events. by assuming the identity as “i”, the narrator endears himself to the reader while he has to sacrifice the privilege of omniscience. b. third-person narrators if the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-per