LinguisticsRevision语言学复习资料分解

1、Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (January, 2015)I. Tran slatio n (1 X 20 = 20 %): Chin ese into En glish = 10 En glish into Chin ese = 10II. Fill in the bla nks (2 X 15 = 30 %): Fill in the bla nks in sentences usi ng lin guistic termsIII. Defi nitio ns ( 4 X 5 = 20 %)IV. Short essa

2、ys (15 X 2 = 30 %)RevisionI. Terms for secti ons I, II, and III.Chapter 7:1) sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics might be defined as the study of correlations between linguistic variables(e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the presence or absence of a certain element in a system and

3、non-linguistic variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, hometown, etc.2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假说American Anthropological linguisticsLinguistic determinism: Language determines our way of thinking.Linguistic relativity: similarity between languages is relative, the

4、greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.3) linguistic determinism 语言决定论Language determines our way of thinking.4) linguistic relativity 语言相对论Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, t

5、he more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.5) the context of situation 情景语境According to Halliday, the context of situation contains three components:(1) Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.(2) Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of c

6、onversations(3) Mode of discourse: the channel of communication6) communicative competence交 际能力The implications from sociolinguistics for language teaching is called communicative competenceHymes: Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.(2) Whether (and to what degree) something

7、is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.(3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) inrelation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.(4) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what

8、 its doing entails.M. Canale and M. Swain:(1) Grammatical competence(2) Sociolinguistic competence(3) Discourse competence(4) Strategic competence7) woman register 女性用语According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features:(1) Women use more fancy color t

9、erms such asmauve (淡紫色)and beige (米色).(2) Women use less powerful curse words.(3) Women use more intensifiers such asterribly and awfully.(4) Women use more tag questions: He s right, isn t he?(5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He s rigt?(6) Women s linguistic behavior is more ind

10、irect and, hence, more polite than mens: Could you lower your voice a little?8) linguistic sexism语言性别歧视linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man (used to refer to the whole human race) , he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen.There are many more words for pr

11、ostitutes tha n for whoremasters or whore mon gers.If a man behaves strangely, one may say, There s a woman in ”The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.9) cross-cultural communication跨 文化交际Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural

12、backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures.Chapter &1) the speech act theory言语行为理论This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin who classifies sentenc

13、es in two categories: performatives and constatives.2) performatives言语行为句Austin classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives.Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g.I n ame this sh

14、ip Quee n Elizabeth.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I sentence you ten years of impris onment.3) constatives 表述句Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, e.g.I pour some liquid into the tube.John went to the zoo yesterday.4) locutionary act表述性

15、言语行为、言中行为The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.5) illocutionary act施为性言语行为、言外行为The act of making known the speaker s purpose or the intended meaning: asking or answering a question giving some information or an assurance or a warning pronouncing sentence making a request or an appoi

16、ntment or a criticism* making an identification or giving a description, and many others.6) perlocutionary act 言后行为The consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or induce him to do somethi

17、ng. Whether these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act performed by the speaker. This is what is called perlocutionary act.7) the cooperative principle 合作原贝 UAccording to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purp

18、ose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.8) maxim of quantity 数量准则(1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)(2) do not make yo

19、ur contribution more informative than is required.9) maxim of quality 质量准则(1) do not say what you believe to be false.(2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10) maxim of relation 关联准则Be relevant11) maxim of manner 方式准则Be perspicuous avoid obscurity of expression.(2) avoid ambiguity

20、. be brief be orderly12) calculability 可计算性Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including:1) the conventional meaning of the words,2) the CP and its maxims,3) the context,4) other items of the background knowledge,5) the fact that all relevant

21、items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.13) cancellability 可删除性Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of t

22、hem changes, the implicature will also change. Example:A: Where s X?B: He s gone to the library. He saSO whe n he left. (implicature cancellation)14) non-detachability 非可分离性A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is

23、possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. For example, John s a geniusid John s a mental prodigsaid ironically both implicate that John sn idiot. But conversational implicatures related to the Manner maxim are an exception. Example (8):At home,A: Let s get the kids somethingB: OK, b

24、ut I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M . (manner)15) non-conventionality 非规约性Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. To show this more clearly, we can have a look at some examples of entailment (a logical relati on ship betwee n two sentences in which the tru

25、th of the sec ond n ecessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first n ecessarily follows from the falsity of the sec ond:Isaw a boy and I saw a child ):John has three cows.John has only three cows. (implicature)John has some cows. (entailment)John has some animals. (en

26、tailment)John has something. (entailment)Somebody has three cows. (en tailme nt)Somebody has some cows. (en tailme nt)Somebody has some ani mals. (en tailme nt)Somebody has someth ing. (en tailme nt)16) contextual meaning 语境意义A description of something in reality or a suggestion or a warning is some

27、times referred to as contextual meaning, or speaker s meaning or utterance meaning.17) pragmatics 语用学The discipline that concentrates on contextual meaning is called pragmatics.18) relevance theory关联理论Relevance theory was proposed by Sperber and Wilson who argue that all Gricean maxims, including th

28、e CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance. The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in any given context, what people say is relevant. This prin ciple of releva nee can be see n as a further specificati on of the Gricea n no ti on of cooperation. For r

29、elevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction.Chapter 9:1) literary stylistics 文学文体学Literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features related to literary style, the way in whic

30、h literary works are written.2) foregrounding 前景化(1) Where there seems to be foregro unding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns(2) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the level of lexis, morphological analysis can be done about new

31、 combinations of words(3) Where there is foregrounding on the level of word order and syntax, grammatical knowledge about word classes can be used to analyze unusual or marked combinations or constructions.(4) If a language unit cannot be literally interpreted, the figures of speech that are involve

32、d and used for signification may be analyzed.(5) In any case, unusual, deviant, or marked uses of language in literature (different from the everyday, non-literary language) are identified and analyzed.3) simile 明喻a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by sho

33、wing how it is similar to another thing. And it is explicitly signaled in a text, with the words as or like, e.g.I have seen ships sail like swan asleep.Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who s lost his piece of candy.4) metaphor 暗喻always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unl

34、ike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated:All the world s a stage,And all the men and wome n are merely players;5) metonymy 借喻a change of name, e.g.The pen is mightier than the sword.Can grey hairs make folly venerable?In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.6) synecdoche提 喻a

35、 type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.The legs could hardly keep up with the tanks.A Daniel came to judgment.England beat Argentina in the football match.7) rhyme 尾韵serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stan

36、za; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself:That ni ght whe n joy beganOur n arrowest veins to flush.We waited for the flashOf morning s leveled sun. (abba)8) alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllable

37、s within words:Where with blade, with bloody blameful bladeHe bravely broached his boili ng bloody breast.9) assonance 类韵the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:We were the first that ever burst into the silent sea.10) consonance辅音叠韵the repetition of the fi

38、nal consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Light breaks where no sun shines;Where no sea runs, the waters of the heartPush in the tides.And broke n ghosts with glowworms in their heads_The things of light_File through the flesh where no flesh decks the bones. (abccba)11) reverse rhyme 反韵describes s

39、yllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Quelled and quenched it leaves the leaping sun.12) pararhyme 类尾韵when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they pararhyme:And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall.By his dead smile I knew we stood in hell.13)

40、 repetition 重复the repetition of the same word:O, my luve is like a red, red rose14) metre 格when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.15) iamb抑扬格an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one:and palm to palm is holy palmer ki

41、ss16) trochee 杨抑格an trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable: Wil lows whiten, aspens quiver.17) anapest抑抑扬格an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:without cause be he pleased without caus

42、ebe he cross18) dactyl扬抑抑格A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones: one for the master, and one for the dame.19) spondee 扬扬格a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of onlyspondaic feet: and a black -/ Ba

43、ck gull bent like an iron bar slowly20) couplet 对句two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme:Her eyes are wild, her head is bare,The sun has bur nt her coal-black hair,21) quatrain 四行诗stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.When lovely woma n stoops to folly,And finds too late tha

44、t men betray,What charm can soothe her mela ncholy.What art can wash her guilt away?O, my luve is like a red, red rose,That s newly sprung in June.O, my luve is like the melodie,That s sweetly play d in tune.22) blank verse 无韵诗consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:But do no t let

45、 us quarrel any more,No my lucrezia; bear with me for once:Sit dow n and all shall happe n as you wish.You turn your face, but does it bring your heart?23) narrator 叙事者becaiA narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator of the story develops to deliver information to the

46、 audience, particularly about the plot. I-narrators are often said to bea limited ” because they don t know all the facts or“ unreliabletrick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths.If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third perso

47、n narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third person pronouns. This is the dominant narrator type.24) schemata 图式Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They

48、are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience.In Ianguage schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relatin

49、g to their different viewpoints . Besides indicating their viewpoints by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particularly through evaluativeexpressions:She opened the door of her grimy, branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. The porter was

50、 no where, of course, but there was Harry there, on the sordid little stati on un der furn ace 25) new information 新信息information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable26) given information 已知信息i nformation that is presented by the speaker as recoverable27) direct speech 直接引语a reporting

51、 clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“ Am I too late? he ”sksed.28) indirect speech 间接引语the n arrator provides the report ing clause and con tributes to the formatio n of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.29) free direct speech 自由直接引语a reported clause without either t

52、he reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“ Am I too late? ”30) free indirect speech 自由间接引语closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.31) narrator s representation of speec叙a事者 的言语行为表达a summary of a piece of discourse.She asked him a questio n.32) narra

53、tor s representation of sp叙事者的言语表达telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.Chapter 12:1) functional sentence perspective 能句子观According to the Prague school linguists, apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may

54、 also be a functional analysis in terms of Theme (the starting point of an utterance) and Rheme (the nucleus or the core of the utterance). In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by the grammatical subject and predicate.I went to the zoo yesterday.However, there are utterances in which they

55、 do not correspond, e.g. Yesterday I went to the zoo.At the airport I met Joh n yesterday.The analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme is now known as the functional sentence perspective becausethis patterning is determined by the functional approach of the speaker .2) systemic-functional

56、grammar 系统功能语法According to Halliday, the Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach which has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR.Systemic grammarThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language. The

57、 number system in English, for example, contains two choices: singular and plural. The person system offers three choices: first person, second person, and third person. There are also systems of gen der, tense and mood, etc.Functional grammarFunctional aspect is also termed sociosemantics.Accordi n

58、g to Halliday, the con text of situati on or the social context is at the basic level of linguistic investigation and contains three components:Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.Tenor of discourse: the social relati ons betwee n the participa nts of con versati onsMode of discourse: the cha nnel of com muni cati onThese three situational compone