语言学Chapter+2+phonetics+and__+phonology

,Lecture2PhoneticsandPhonology,ByZhangMingfangSchoolofForeignLanguages,HEBUST,I.Phonetics,Humanbeingsarecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.(Whatsoundscanwemake?)Theclassofpossiblespeechsoundsisnotonlyfinite,butalsouniversal.Anyhumanisabletopronouncethesesounds,regardlessofracialorculturalbackground.,Speechtransmission,Subfieldsinphonetics,ArticulatoryPhonetics(发音语音学)isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhonetics(声学语音学)isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhonetics(听觉语音学)isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.,Phoneticsisthescientificstudyofspeechsoundandisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsoundsaccordingtohowtheyareproduced,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.,ArticulationofSounds,Awiderangeofphysicalactivityisinvolvedintheproductionofthespeechsoundsinhumanlanguage.Vocalorgansoftenarticulateormoveagainsteachotherintheproductionofspeech.Vocalorgansrefertoallthepartsofthehumanbodythatarerelatedtospeechproduction.(Whatvocalorgansdoweusewhenproducingsounds?),VocalOrgans(3resonatingcavities),articulatoryapparatus,pharyngealcavitythroat,Oralcavitymouth,Nasalcavitynose,Vocalfolds,Positionsofthevocalfolds,Closed,vibrateVoiced,ApartVoicless,TotallyclosedGlotalstop,TheTranscriptionofSounds,Phoneticianstrytotranscribethesoundsasaccuratelyaspossible,i.e.byrecordingallthearticulatorydetailsthatexistinspeech.Sincethesixteenthcentury,effortshavebeenmadetodeviseauniversalsystemfortranscribingthespeechsounds.,TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.,TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)P28,Abroadtranscriptionisonethatonlytakesaccountofthesounddifferencesthatareimportanttodistinguishwordsfromeachotherinalanguage.Abroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.Thesubstitutionofpfortdoesmakeadifferenceofword:pin/pin/andtin/tin/aredifferentwordsinEnglish.,BroadandNarrowTranscription,Anarrowtranscriptionistheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetail.Anarrowtranscriptionisatranscriptionwithlettersymbolstogetherwithdiacritics.E.g.lamba(nasalization);peakph;speakp=,(WhatisthedifferencebetweentheminEnglish?)Consonantsareproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.Vowelisproducedwithoutsuch“structure”sothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose.(Crystal,1997:154)Thedistinctionbetweenthemliesintheobstructionofairstream.,Descriptionofconsonants,Howdoyoudescribe(classify)theconsonantssuchasp,b,s,z?Whendescribingindividualsoundsegments,phoneticiansandlinguistsoftenemploytwoparameterstoexaminehowsoundsarearticulated:mannerofarticulationandplaceofarticulation.(P30),Themannerofarticulation:theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofvocaltract.(1)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(2)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;(3)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.,Theplaceofarticulation:whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.(theplaceofobstruction),MannerofArticulation,Themannerofarticulationisveryimportantduringtheproductionofthesound.Itisbasedonthesizeoftheairpassage.(24consonants)Describethesixgroupsrespectivelyaccordingtomannerofarticulation,MannerofArticulation,Stops/plosives（闭塞音或破裂音）suchasp,b,t,d,k,gcompleteclosure,completelyobstructed.Nasalsn-velumlowered,air-streamthroughthenoseFricatives（摩擦音）suchasf,v,s,z,hcloseapproximation,partiallyobstructed,turbulentairflow,audiblefriction.,(4)Affricates（塞擦音）suchast,dastop+africative(5)Liquideslrnofriction(6)Glides/semi-vowelsuchasw,jlittleornofriction,glidetowardsorawayfromaneighboringvowel,MannerofArticulation,PlaceofArticulation,Theplaceofarticulationisanotherwaytoobservehowsoundsarearticulated.Whendescribingtheplaceofarticulation,weusuallyconsidertheplacewithinthevocaltractwherethearticulatorsformastructure.,11placesofarticulation,(1)Bilabial双唇音p,b,m,w(2)Labio-dental唇齿音f,v(3)Dental齿音,(4)Alveolar齿龈音t,d,s,z,n,l,r(5)Palatal腭音,t,d,j(6)Velar软腭音k,g,(7)Glottal喉音h,AchartofEnglishconsonants(P35)DescriptionsofEnglishconsonantspvoicelessbilabialstopzvoicedalveolarfricative,Vowels,Intheproductionofvowels,thereisnoobstructionofairasisthecasewithconsonants.HowdoyouclassifyEnglishvowelsanddescribethem?E.g.i,u,a.,Fourparameters:(1)theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);(2)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);(3)thelengthoftensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short);(4)lip-rounding(roundingvs.unrounded).Table2.2.EnglishvowelsP36,P36,PureormonophthongvowelsDiphthongsTriphthongsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsi:highfronttenseunroundedvowelmidcentrallaxunroundedvoweluhighbacklaxroundedvowel,Question,WhatdifficultiesorproblemsdoyouhaveinmakingEnglishsounds?Whatarethereasons?,Assignment,Teamwork(4-5studentsinateam)InvestigateintothedifficultiesorproblemsinpronuncingEnglishsoundsmadebyChineselearners,tryingtoexplainthereasonsforthedifficultiesofproblems.(1)questionaireorinterview(reading)(2)observationinclass,Phonology(音系学）isthestudyofthesoundpatternsinhumanlanguage,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.,II.Phnology,Acommonmethodologyofphonologyistobeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,todetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheypattern.Thencomparedifferentsoundsystems,develophypothesesabouttherulesinparticulargrouplanguages,andultimatelyinalllanguages.,2.1Importantconcepts,1.Phone(因素、音子):thesmallestperceptiblediscreetsegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.2.Phoneme(音位)(distinctivesound)isthesmallestunitofsoundinalanguage,anditcausesameaningdifferenceinlanguage.E.g.peak,speak,Phonemei)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysical,cognitiveiv)markedwith/p/,/t/,Phonei)phoneticunitii)notdistinctiveofmeaningiii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwithp=,3.Allophones(音位变体)aredifferentformsofthesamephoneme,andtheyarenon-distinctivesoundsforsubstitutingonefortheotherdoesnotchangethemeaningofaword.E.g.p=inspanandspareisun-aspirated(withoutthepuffofair);phinputandpairisaspirated(withalittlepuffofair).,/t/button?toptHstopt=thattunreleasedlatterFLAPareallperceivedas/t/.,Thephonemeisatthecognitivelevel;theallophonesareatthebehaviorallevel.,4.Minimalpairs(最小对立体)arewordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.E.g.bearandpear;pitandpet.Fig.2.5.onP39Purposeforthenotionofminimalpair:findoutthedistinctivesounds.,Contrastivedistribution:bitvs.butpitvs.bitThreerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning;2)onlyonephonemedifferent;3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.e.g.patvs.fatMinimalset:pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc,5.Complementarydistribution(互补分布）Allophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution,thatis,theyneveroccurinthesamecontext.(P41)e.g./p/-php=,6.Freevariation(自由变异)Iftwoormorelinguisticitemsoccurringinthesamepositionwithoutanyapparentchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,cup,either,direction,2.2Phonologicalprocesses,Phonologicalprocesses(音位过程)aretheprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructurechangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.,Assimilationisaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Nasalization,dentalization,velarization,devoicingareallinstancesofassimilation.(P42),1.fivepast2.loveto3.hasto4.ascanbeshown5.losefive-nil6.edgetoedge,faifpa:stlfthastsknbiunlu:sfaivnilttd,Devoicing,Itcanoccuracrosssyllableorwordboundaries(P43)E.g.pancake,sunglasses,discussingshortly,(1)Regressiveassimilation(逆同化):thefollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound.(2)Progressiveassimilation(顺同化):theprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound.,2.3Phonologicalrules,Howdoyouarrangethefollowingphonemes/b/,/k/,/l/,/i/?*lbki,*bkil,*ilkbIfawordbeginswithanloranr,everyEnglishspeakerknowsthatthenextsegmentmustbeavowel.*lbikdoesnotsoundlikeanEnglishwordbecauseitdoesnotconformtotherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.,1.nasalizationrule-nasal+nasal/_+nasalE.g.can,tan2.dentalizationrule-dental+dental/_+dentalE.g.tenth,ninth,3.velarizationrule-velar+velar/_+velarE.g.sink,mink,think4.Theepenthesisrule(fortheindefinitearticle)anapple,anhonor,anorangen/_V,5.Therulegoverningpluralforms(P45)(1)The/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds(Allvowelsarevoiced.)(thebasicform)(2)The/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds(3)The/z/appearsaftersibilants/s,z,t,d/e.g.benches,cases,bridges,ashes,couches/z/s/-voice,C(Devoicing)/+sibilant_z(Epenthesis),Phonologicalrules,6.SequentialrulesInEnglishthewords“help,lump,prayandquick”areacceptable,while“hepl,lupm,rpayandwqick”areunacceptableatall.Itseemsthatsomeconsonantcombinationsareallowedinonsetandcodapositions,butsomenot.Therearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.,Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:1.Thefirstphonememustbe/s/;2.Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/;3.Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/or/j/.*Sequentialrulesarelanguagespecific.,7.Thedeletionruletellsuswhenasoundisdeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample:knife,knight,knickersk/_ndumbb/m_,2.4DistinctiveFeatures,Distinctivefeatureisafeaturethatisabletosignaladifferenceinmeaningbychangingitsplusorminusvalue(e.g.thefeaturevoiceinthewordspeerandbeerorpatandbat.区别意义的特征叫区别性特征,Thedifferencebetweenthetwopairsofwordsisthatofvoice-/p/isvoiceless,/b/isvoiced.Distinctivefeaturesareusuallyinbinaryopposition(二分对立).E.g./b/+voice,/p/-voice,Distinctivefeaturematrixforenglishconsonantphonemes(Radford,etal.1999:141),2.5Suprasegmentalphonology(超切分音位),Thestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslagerthanthesegmentphoneme.Theyaresyllable(音节)，stress（重音）,intonation（语调）andtone(音/声调),1.Syllable,Structurally,thesyllablemaybedividedintothreeparts:theonset,thepeak,andthecoda.manquick,Thepeakisusuallyformedbyavowelandsymbolizedby“V”./l,n,m/alsofunctionaspeakssuchasin“apple,hidden,rhythm”,Asyllablewithoutacoda(endinginavowel)isanOPENsyllable.E.g.bee,fly,complyAsyllablecheckedorarrestedbyaconsonantisaCLOSEDsyllable.E.g.table,nose,apple,Inclosedsyllablesanyvowelcanoccur.Butinstressedopensyllables,onlytensevowels(longvowelsanddipththongs)occur.E.g.bi:kn,faib,ireiz,tellingte-lling,tel-ling,tell-ingMaximalonsetprinciple(MOP)P50,WhatisthepatternofEnglishsyllables/Chinesesyllables?InEnglish,thesyllablemayberepresentedas(C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C),e.g.bye,fly,flight,spread,cast,result,eat,sixthsInChinese,(C)V(C),wo,ai,zhong,ren,min,Universalitymam,mma,m,mer,mama,mmiSurprisingsimilarityinEnglishandChinese:amorous爱慕,back背,bawd鸨,cheat欺骗,cough咳嗽,dawn旦,ditch堤,give给,palm巴掌,rude鲁莽,shy羞。,SonorityScale,Sonorityscale（响音节）isthedegreeofsonorityofdifferentclassesofsounds,anditaffectsthepossiblepositionsofsoundsinthesyllable.ThepatternofEnglishsyllables,5vowelsmostsonorous4approximants3nasals2fricatives1stopslestsonorousThesonorityofeachsoundgraduallyrisetoapeakatthenucleusandthenfallsatthecoda.,5vowels4approximants3nasals2fricatives1stopshelpheplS+p,t,k+r,l,j,w(exception)spl,spr,str,skw,2.Stress,Stressisgenerallydefinedassyllableprominence.Inotherwords,itreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Inmanylanguages,includingEnglish,somesyllableswithinawordarerelativelymoreprominentthanothers.,ThestresspatterninEnglishisnoeasymatterbecauseitmayfallonanysyllable.E.g.instinct（直觉）,instinct（充满的）,(1)integral,communal,formidable,controversy(1st,moreconservative);(2)laboratory,garage,debrisbetweenspeakersofRPandGeneralAmericans(P51)(3)Fordifferentgrammaticalfunctions,e.g.convict,insult,produce,rebel(1st,n;2nd,v),CompoundsandphrasesCompoundFreephraseafatheadafatheadahothouseahothouseablackhorseablackhorseagreenroomagreenroom,东西-东西下场-下场大意-大意管家-管家来往-来往运气-运气,3.IntonationandTone,Pitch（音高、声调高低）isanothersuprasegmentalfeature,whosesmallestdomainofapplicationissyllable.Pitchvariationsmaybedistinctivelikephonemes,thatis,theymaycontributetodistinguishbetweendifferentwords.Inthisfunction,pitchvariationsarecalledTONES（声调、音调）.,