语言学考试期末复习大纲.doc

the number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination is infinite. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistic is the systematic(or scientific)study of languagePhonetics 发音学，语音学is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds. Phonology 音位（系）学is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Morphology形态学 语法 is the study of the formation of words or the study of the internal structures of the form of words.Syntax 句法is the study of the arrangements of words in a sentence.Semantics 语义学is the study of the meaning of language.Semantic field语义场 refers to the organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another. 比如杯子，大杯子放在一起就是语场Synonyms are words that are close in meaning.Antonymy: oppositeness of meaningMeronymy部分整体关系： part/whole relationship.Hyponymy 上下义关系refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word（E.g. Superordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily）Homonymy: 同音异义words having different meanings have the same form. E.g. ball.Polysemy: 多义性the same one word may have more than one meaning. E.g. table Language function:谁提出的：Finch1. Physiological function生理功能 2. Phatic function 寒暄功能 3. Recording function 记录功能 4. Identifying function 辨别功能 5. Reasoning function 推理功能 6. Communicating function交流功能 7. Pleasure function 娱乐功能Metafunctions of Language纯理功能Ideational function （概念功能）Interpersonal function （人际功能） Textual function （语篇功能）Some Important Distinctions on Linguistics Langue and Parole语言和言语（语言是抽象的系统，言语是具体化的） Prescriptive and Descriptive描述性和规定性linguistics is descriptive, Synchronic and Diachronic共识性和历时性 Speech and Writing 口语和书面语 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic（横）组合和（纵）组合P33 Competence and Performance语言能力（内置规则）和语言行为（说话） Functionalism and Formalism语言功能主义和语言形式主义How to define Langue and parole, Competence and performance?Saussure made the distinction: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.Chomsky defines competence as the abstract ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. SaussureChomskyDefinitionlanguecompetence paroleperformanceDifferenceSociological view Psychological viewSimilarityLinguists should study abstract langue or competence, not parole or performance, which is too varied and haphazard.Modern Linguistic VS. Traditional GrammarModern linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive.Modern linguistics regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics is usually synchronic rather than diachronic.Use of languagePragmatics语用学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学psycholinguistics- the relationship between language and the mind心里语言学sociolinguistics- the relationship between language and society社会语言学applied linguistics-the study of applications of linguistic findings, such as to language learning and teaching应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学The history of linguistics1：The structural linguistics Saussure2：Mentalistic linguistics Noam Chomsky 3：Functional linguistics M.A.K Halliday1：According to Saussures idea: Language is a system. Language is a formInfluenced by his ideas there appeared different structural linguists such as the “ Prague School” , the “ Copenhagen School”The most influential structural linguist was the American linguist L. Bloomfield He believed that the task for linguist is to describe all the language materials observable objectively and systematically. Language forms or structures should be the focus while the meaning is neglected. 2：Chomsky rejected the structural approach to language description.Language is a system that relates meaning to substance.Language is a mental phenomenon.Language is innate and human-specific.Language is universal.3:The functionalists look at language from a functional point of view. They are more concerned with what speakers do with language. Noam Chomsky, born in 1928 ,Philadelphia, US, He was the American linguist and political activist who founded the Transformational-Generative Grammar. He also made distinction between competence and performance.Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist whose ideas on Structure in language laid the foundation for much of the approach of the linguistic science in the 20th century.In 1916 his students published a book “Course in General linguistics”, in which he made an important distinction between langue and parole. M.A.K. Halliday was the British linguist who viewed language basically as a social phenomenon.According to Halliday, language plays three metafunctions simultaneously:(i) The ideational function-A symbolic code to represent the world (ii) The interpersonal function-A medium to get along in a community(iii) The textual function-To organize messages to form a text非常重要articulatory phonetics 发音语音学It is the primary concern in linguistics.Voiced 浊音& Voiceless清音voiced,consonants: d, b, g, dV ,m, n, , T, z, V, l, r, w, j.English has more voiced than voiceless sounds.Vowels: 元音In the production of them, the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth.Consonants: In the production of them, it is somehow obstructed.How do we classify the English consonants?1：Manner of articulation (发音方式）2：places of articulation(发音部位）1：The way in which a speech sound is produced by the speechorgans. There are different ways of producing speech sounds.With consonants the air stream may bestopped and released suddenly ( a stop), e.g. /t/allowed to escape with friction (a fricative), e.g./f/stopped and then released slowly with friction (an affricate), /t/The vocal cords may be vibrating (a voiced speech sound) or not (a voiceless speech sound).With vowels, in addition to the position of the tongue in the mouth, the lips may be rounded (收圆） , e.g. for /u/, /u:/Spread （展开）, e.g. for /i/, /i:/classified into the following types:Plosives : p b t d k Nasals鼻音: m n Fricatives摩擦音: f v s z T hAffricates:塞擦音 tF dV Approximants无擦通音: Liquids: l r Glides: j wTrills & Taps: r2：places of articulation can be classified into the following types:Bilabial双唇塞音: p, b, m Labiodental:唇齿音 f, v Dental:齿音 , TAlveolar齿槽音: t, d, n, s, z, l , rPalatal:上颚音 j, F, V, tF, dV Velar: 软腭音 k, g, , wGlottal:喉音 hIn what ways do vowels differ from each other? 1. According to the openness of the mouth, there are: open, semi-open, semi-close & close vowels.2. According to the retraction and extension of the tongue, vowels can be distinguished as: back vowels, central & front vowels.3. According to the shape of the lips, there are: rounded & unrounded vowels. 4. According to the length of the vowels, there are: long & short vowels.重要：转换生存语法谁提的Transformational generative Grammar(TG） ：ChomskyIt is a theory of grammar including phonology音位学 and semantics语义学, but Syntax is its core component.Its two main aspects: 1.generative aspect ( This means that a grammar must generate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language and 2.transformational aspect. (This refers actually to a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another.)重要Deep structure is the abstract structure and can be said to be the propositional core of the sentence. is its basic structure both semantically语义 and syntactically句法. From it we can derive surface structure.It shows the basic form of sentence with all the necessary information to derive a well-formed sentence, and to give it a phonological representation and semantic interpretation. It is generated by phrase structure rules.Surface structure is the actually produced structure. is the form that people can actually say. They are the result of the operation of transformations on deep structure.Surface structure must undergo phonetic interpretation in order to correspond to its general sense, e.g. turning “be+en+V” into “has been repaired.”Semantics 语义学7个types： conceptual meaning概念意义（字典中的） connotative meaning内涵 social meaning社会 affective meaning情感reflective meaning反映This is the meaning when we associate one sense of an expression with another. E.g. “dear” in certain context is used in the sense “expensive” but also alludes to “beloved” collocative meaning组合This refers to what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. E.g. “pretty” and “handsome” Both words share a similar conceptual meaning “good-looking”, they habitually collocate with different sets of nouns, such as pretty girl and handsome boy.thematic meaning主位The meaning difference between “tomorrow I plan to have an outing” and “I plan to have an outing tomorrow” is in that they focus on different aspects and tend to occur in different contexts. 从内涵意义到最后一个都属于联想意义associative meaning.语义三角Semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards.它属于传统approach Thought/concept Symbol/Formreferent参考对象，所指事物Problem: The link between the symbol and the concept remains unclarified.3个approaches to meaningThe Traditional Approach The Functional ApproachThe Pragmatic ApproachSemantic field语义场Semantic relations between lexemes词位，词素 Synonymy and Antonymy同义词和反义词 Meronymy and Hyponymy部分整体关系，上下义关系 Polysemy and Homonymy多义性，同音异义Semantic analysis语义分析Componential analysis成分分析Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of SEMANTIC COMPONENTS. E.g. “man” is analyzed as +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.Predication analysis述谓分析Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of arguments中项 (logical participants) and predicate 谓语(a relational element).Is the baby sleeping? Its predication can be written as: BABY (SLEEP) Tautology & Metaphor 赘述&隐喻。例(1) Hungry people are hungry.(2) A bachelor is unmarried.(3) This orphan has no father.&（1）The man is a tiger. Pragmatics 语用is the study of language usage from a functional perspective and is concerned with the principles that account for how meaning is communicated by the speaker (writer) and interpreted by the listener (reader) in a certain context. Mike: What happened to that bowl of cream?Annie: Cats drink cream.Semantically, Annies reply can be paraphrased as Domestic felines consume the liquid fat of milk, but pragmatically, Annie probably implies That bowl of cream was probably eaten by our cat. In other words, semantics focuses on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account our knowledge about the physical and social world.Speech Act Theory 语言行为理论Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It means: We are performing actions when we are speaking. three acts simultaneously when speaking: Locutionary act (言内行为), Illocutionary act (言外行为), （ 语用最感兴趣） Perlocutionary act (言后行为). Locutionary act:说出词，短语，和分句的行为，是通过句法，词汇和音位来表达字面意思the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance;Illocutionary act:表达说话者的意图行为，说某话时所实施的行为the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning;Perlocutionary act:讲某些话导致的行为，话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.Indirect Speech Act间接言语行为说话者不按字面进行意谓的言语行为，比如说问：“你够的着盐么？”实际想让别人帮忙拿重要：合作原则和礼貌原则 Cooperative Principle Politeness Principle（1）The maxim of Quality 说话不要妄言The maxim of Quantity 提供的信息不能多也不能少The maxim of Relevance说有关的The maxim of Manner表达情感（2）Maxim of Tact得体Maxim of Generosity慷慨Maxim of Approbation表扬Maxim of Modesty谦逊Maxim of Agreement一致Maxim of sympathy同情Language varieties语言变体方言和语言的区别Dialect VS language1.Dialect is a variation of language different enough to be classed as a separate entity, but not different enough to be classed as a separate language.2.Sometimes a dialect rises in status and becomes the standard variety of a country.3.When the speakers of two dialects belong to two countries, it is more likely that the dialects become two languages. 方言有哪几类Regional Dialects地域方言Social Dialect （various social groups or classes.）Standard Dialect 标准（based on the speech and writing of educated native）Register语域（和不同的人说话用不同的口气，在不同的场合用不同的语气说话）受到3个限制 determine the register: i. Field of discourse 话语范围(语场) ii. Tenor of discourse话语基调(语旨) iii. Mode of discourse话语方式(语式)如何受制，如何影响The three variables are the features of the context of situation which determine collectively the features of language appropriate to the situation, i.e. register. Language and culture。Wardaugh。Kinship system。second language acquisition (SLA)特征1：influence of the first language（语言迁移language transfer)2：a natural sequence of deveiopment自然发展顺序（和第一语言学习遵循相同顺序）A good test should take three factors into account:Validity, Reliability & Efficiency Errors：语言能力的欠缺，自我不能修正Mistakes：说话错误，能自我修正Interlingual error中介语错误: 语言迁移中的错误，和母语有关Intralingual error语内错误: 和母语没关系 e.g. *She is reads from She is reading She reads. a) She didnt went back. This error belongs to intralingual transfer. The cause for the error is the learners overgeneralization of the rule for negation by inserting didnt. Obviously, the learner fails to change the past form went into its base form go. b) Do she works in factory? The cause for the misuse of do is dubious. The error may belong to intralingual transfer caused by the learn