FURTHER QUANTIATIVE.doc

A critical evaluation on the use of qualitative research methods in conducting researches 6510042Abstract Qualitative research is a multi-method research using an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject and using the social actors meaning to understand the phenomena. It plays an important role in the fields of social science. Through analyzing three previous qualitative researches done by other investigators, this paper will give a critical evaluation on the use of qualitative research methods, aims to demonstrate the importance of using qualitative research methods, the appropriateness of adopting qualitative research methods in a research, the main qualitative research methods and how to use them IntroductionAccording to Denzin and Lincoln( 1994), qualitative research is a multi-method research using an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject and using the social actors meaning to understand the phenomena. It can address the question about why and how social experience is created and given meaning. In recent years, qualitative research methods are becoming more and more important and popular tools in conducting the social science research (Mack and Macqueen, 2005). This article will employ some relevant literatures as cases to evaluate the use of qualitative methods in conducting research critically. The main cases used in this article include: 1. an investigation of student resistance in two comprehensive secondary schools in Birmingham (England) and a state governed school situated in Sydney (Australia) by a young, novice ethnographer Russell (2005), 2. a study on the life component of the work-life balance equation within the context of ethnic minority womens experiences by Kamenou (2008), 3. a research of shared identity narratives at UK-based specialist tour operator Laskarina Holidays by Brown et al (2005). The essay will organized as follows, at first, it will give a brief session on the importance of using qualitative research methods. And then the main paradigms and methodologies of qualitative research, especially the ethnography, will be discussed. The third part will focus on the crucial elements of conducting a success qualitative research. Finally, it will talk about the ethical issue of qualitative research.Importance of qualitative researchQualitative research plays an important role in modern social science. This is because qualitative research has its roots in social science (Ethnography, Anthropology), it provides valuable insights into the local perspectives of study populations and they are especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations (Mack and Macqueen,2005). For those issues which may not be easily accessed by using quantitative approaches, such as individuals or groups subjective experiences of health and disease; social, cultural and political factors in health and disease, qualitative methods will be more appropriate (Fossey et al, 2002). Moreover, it seeks to provide culturally specific and contextually rich data which are critical in the design of comprehensive solutions to some social researches. Meanwhile, when it is used along with quantitative methods, qualitative research can help people to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given situation and the implications of quantitative data. Paradigms and methodologies of qualitative researchThere are three principal research paradigms: the empirico-analytical, interpretive and critical research paradigms (Gephart, 2004). Among them, the interpretive and critical research paradigms inform qualitative research methodologies and place emphasis on seeking understanding of the meanings of human actions and experiences (Fossey et al, 2002). The critical approaches emphasize the social and historical origins and contexts of meaning, while interpretive methodologies focus primarily on understanding and accounting meanings inherent in human experience and action. Basically, ethnography usually adopts interpretive methodologies to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group. As an ethnographer, Russell (2005) took an interpretive approach in her research on students resistance because the aim of her research was not to discover the meaning of the “student resistance” phenomenon; she just tried to understand the behaviour of “student resistance” in her point of view. How to do a successful qualitative researchCentral to qualitative research is whether the research participants subjective meanings, actions and social contexts, as understood by them, are illuminated (Fossey et al, 2002). Therefore, to fully exploit the valuable perspectives of study populations, as argued by Genzuk, 1999, it relies heavily on an up-close, possible participation, experience, by researchers. There are several vital elements of qualitative research: appropriate and adequate sample, appropriate research methods, a close and trust relationship with target group, researchers experience and a good description and analysis on the data collected.1. Choosing the appropriate and adequate sampleQualitative sampling is very important to the validity of data collected. Morse (1995) pointed out two key considerations to guide the sampling methods: appropriateness and adequacy. Appropriateness means qualitative sampling requires identification of appropriate participants, being those who can best inform the study while adequacy requires enough sampling of information sources (i.e. people, places, events, types of data) so as to address the research question and to develop a full description of the phenomenon being studied (Morse, 1995). In Kamenous research, different means of access to the interviewees were planned in order to add richness and appropriateness to the data. In addition to the formal access to the organizations, Kamenou also selected an “independent” group of participants from a range of public, private and voluntary organizations. This is because if Kamenou only made formal access gained in the participants organizations, she would have probably criticized as making “no attempt to deal with contrary cases” and the “validity” of her study would have been questioned (Silverman 2006). There are some differences between the people in organizations where formal access had been granted and the “independent” group indentified through personal networking, because these “independent” groups come from a variety of sectors and occupations and is probably more likely to have different individual experience and points of view than those who are from the formal organizations. Moreover, participants through the means of personal networking might feel freer to express their real opinions and feelings since the “independent” group might feel more natural when they are accessed by personal networking. In Brown et al (2005)s case, they choose adequate sample to do the research of shared identity narratives at UK-based specialist tour operator Laskarina Holidays. In their case, 39 samples were chosen to conduct semi-structure interviews. In order to get adequate data, 4 key employees even being interviewed twice and the duration of the interviews varied from 40 to 80 minutes, with a median length of 60 minutes (Brown et al, 2005).2. Using appropriate Methods to collect data It is very important for researchers to choose appropriate methods in collecting data. The common qualitative methods include participant observation, interview. -Participant observation According to Fossey et al (2002), participant observation is a method particularly employed by ethnographers to learn about the naturally occurring routines, interactions and practices of a particular group of people in their social environments, and so to understand their culture. It needs the researchers to take part in everyday life, and questioning the target group formally or informally. In Russells research, she used participant observation method to collect data since she lived with those students, had class with them, and took part in their activities. As Spradley (1980) stated “rather than studying people, ethnography means learning from people.” Participating in students daily life, Russell had chances to exchange ideas and share experiences with the students formally and informally, therefore obtained a reliable and rich data.-InterviewInterview is widely acknowledged to be one of the most popular research methods used in qualitative research (Gilbert, 2001). According to Mack and Macqueen (2005), it can be defined as a technique designed to elicit a vivid picture of the participants perspective and so to gain access to their experiences, feelings and social worlds. The interview can be unstructured or semi-structured. Unstructured interviews are usually conducted in an everyday conversational style and semi- structured interviews are used to facilitate more focused exploration of a specific topic, using an interview guide. In Kamenou s study on the life component of the work-life balance equation within the context of ethnic minority womens experiences, semi-structured, in-depth interviews were employed to collect the primary data. Savenye and Robinson (1996) summarized the ideas: “Good interviews are those in which the subjects are at ease and talk freely about their points of view.Good interviews produce rich data filled with words that reveal the respondents perspectives”. To do a good interview, the interviewers personal identity and academic knowledge are important since qualitative interviewing builds on the conversational skills of interviewers and the types of questions asked by the interviewers will frame the participants responses (Letts, 2007). As Orb et al (2000) state that the personal interaction between researchers and participants is crucial in data gathering and the researchers perceptions of field situations are determined by personality and the nature of the interactionsIt is argued that in Kamenous research, her identity as a senior lecturer in human resource management and diversity management in the School of Management and languages in Heriot-Watt University, her educational background in both Economics and Human Resource Management, and her working experience as a Senior Research Officer on the mainstreaming Equalities project in the Social Justice Division, may contribute to the smooth going of the interviews, gaining trust and rapport with the interviewees, and therefore accessing to rich data.However, interviewing as one of the common qualitative methods also has its weaknesses and difficulties (Neil, 2007) especially in the circumstance where the researches referring to sensitive topics, which interviewees unwilling them to be uncovered. When conducting the interviews, it is crucial for the researchers to consider those issues. In Kamenous (2008) case, she ran into such kind of difficulties when he recruited interviewees. There were approximately 20 organizations selected for the study originally, and three organizations acted positively to the invitation. However, one of these organizations later withdrew from the study claiming “restructuring was in process”. The reason why this happened is probably that the organization didnt implement equality policies and it didnt want this issue to be uncovered, Meanwhile, participating in an interview is voluntary, after balancing the advantages and disadvantages of their participations, some interviewee may withdrew from the study.-Other research methodsIn addition to participant observation and interview, other research methods include documentary evidence, focus group and vast array using pictures, email interviews, diaries. In some circumstances, only one method is not enough to obtain adequate data, therefore, a combination of different kinds of research methods is required. If suitable information is already available, secondary data should also be used. For example, in Brown et al s(2005) case, except the semi-structure interview, they also employed a substantial number of additional informal interviews, observations, photographs, documentation, internet pages and policy reports in order to get rich data. 3. Close and trust relationship with target groupA close and trust relationship is very important in qualitative research, especially for ethnology since ethnographers need to gain entrance, and become part of the culture they studying (Fossey et al, 2002). They should participate in the daily life and activities with the target group. As Bryman, (2004) argued that it is crucial to be a member in social relations and try to understand actions within the specified background of the observed setting in that people act and comprehend their world by the way of taking meanings from certain context or their environment. Since different social groups have different characters, aspirations and culture, the researchers should take advantage of their personality, personal traits and identity in order to build relations with those target groups (Stapleton 1984). In Russells case, her personality and personal traits such as modest, female gender, small height and especially the young age which is 23-24 at the time of the fieldwork influenced the research substantially. The young age both brought some advantages and disadvantage to her research. At first the young age was well utilized in building the close and trust relationship with the students (Russell, 2005). The little gap of age between Russell and students made her easily blend into the participants at the initial stage and then built rapport with them fast and readily. As Russell (2005) mentioned that in some ways her novice naivety acted as a benefit when trying to manage the impulsive and sometimes shocking behavior of students since her age “contributed to the participants feeling comfortable when discussing intimate secrets”. By gaining trust from the students, Russell can access to their private life easily which help her to collect the information that she searched for directly and validly. However the young age also brought some drawbacks, especially in dealing the relationship with teachers. As Russell indicates that her communication with the teachers is not as successful as with students4. The importance of experienceExcept winning trust of researched group, experience is another important factor of qualitative research. As Ausband (2006) stated that the process of conducting a qualitative research is one of continuous adjustment which requires the researchers have a good experiences and accumulated skills: the researchers should always make changes according to the change environment. Shaffir (1991) also argued that field researchers experience is significant because they participate in the data-collection process rather than direct it outside. The validity and reliability of data always remains a problem for inexperienced researchers. Recall from Russells case, she did meet some troubles because of her naivety and lack of experience. At first, unlike researchers before, owing to her lack of insider teacher and researcher knowledge, Russell met problems in gaining access to information from teachers since her feel less confidence in communicating teaching staff at the initial stage of fieldwork. As she mentioned that “I experienced times of helplessness and discomfort I had no previous knowledge of how to deal with situations (as a teacher or as a researcher)” Secondly, she also felt confused when she encounter some instances required immediate decision-making skills. When she witnessed students broke school rules that could have led to dire consequences such as truant, thieve, damage school property, she found it difficult to deal with such instances since she is a novice ethnographer. In addition, her presence and influence on the participants behavior is evident and that may lead to the biased and invalidity of data collected. For instance, during her research, a student attempts to exploit Russells position to his benefit by using she as an excuse to chat; the teacher is perplexed by Russells presence and tries to clear the situation by asking what her purpose is. It is argued that an experienced researcher has more sophisticated skills which help her to perform better in dealing with those situations mentioned above and has the superior ability balance the relationship between researcher and the teachers. However, it is not necessary that an experienced researcher would do a better research as a whole, especially for this research investigating unaffected teenagers. For instance, due to the naivety and novice, the author builds a good relationship with the students whereas an experienced researcher might encounter problems in constructing rapport and trust with students since they perceived the experienced ethnographer as a teacher instead of peers. Moreover, an experienced researcher might be less flexible than a novice. If the researcher had experience of being a teacher, he or she may used to conduct the research based on teachers perspective which may cause the biased result of research.5. Data analysisWhen data was collected, the analysis of data is necessary to exploit the information hidden in those data. As Tesch (1990) stated that qualitative analysis is a process of reviewing, synthesizing and interpreting data to explain the phenomena or social world studied. The validity and reliability are two factors which any qualitative researcher should be concerned about when analysing and interpreting the results (Patton, 2001). Furthermore, sufficient description and direct quotations sho