kotler12_im_Marketing management笔记

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading this chapter, students should: Know what are the characteristics of products and how can they be classified Know how companies can differentiate products Know how a company can build and manage its product mix and product lines Know how companies can combine products to create strong co-brands or ingredient brands Know how companies can use packaging, labeling, warranties, and guarantees as marketing toolsCHAPTER SUMMARY Product is the first and most important element of the marketing mix. Product strategy calls for making coordinated decisions on product mixes, product lines, brands, and packaging and labeling. In planning its market offering, the marketer needs to think through the five levels of the product: the core benefit, the basic product, the expected product, the augmented product, and the potential product that encompasses all the augmentations and transformations the product might ultimately undergo. Products can be classified in several ways. In terms of durability and reliability, products can be nondurable goods, durable goods, or services. In the consumer-goods category, products are convenience goods (staples, impulse goods, emergency goods), shopping goods (homogeneous and heterogeneous), specialty goods, or unsought goods. In the industrial-goods category, products fall into one of three categories: materials and parts (raw materials and manufactured materials and parts), capital items (installations and equipment), or suppliers and business services (operating supplies, maintenance and repair items, maintenance and repair services, and business advisory services). Brands can be differentiated on the basis of a number of different product or service dimensions: product form, features, performance, conformance, durability, reliability, repairability, style, and design, as well as such service dimensions as ordering ease, delivery, installation, customer training, customer consulting, and maintenance and repair. 345C H A P T E R 12 SETTING PRODUCT STRATEGYChapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialMost companies sell more than one product. A product mix can be classified according to width, length, depth, and consistency. These four dimensions are the tools for developing the companys marketing strategy and deciding which product lines to grow, maintain, harvest, and divest. To analyze a product line and decide how many resources should be invested in that line, product-line manages need to look at sales and profits and market profile.A company can change the product component of its marketing mix by lengthening its product via line stretching (down-market, up-market, or both) or line filling, by modernizing its products, featuring certain products, and pruning its products to eliminate the least profitable. Brands are often sold or marketed jointly with other brands. Ingredient brands and co-brands can add value assuming they have equity and are perceived as fitting appropriately.Physical products have to be packaged and labeled. Well-designed packages can create convenience value for customers and promotional value for producers. In effect, they can act as “five-second commercials” for the product. Warranties and guarantees can offer further assurance to consumers. OPENING THOUGHT Students will be familiar with their “idea” of a tangible productthe physical manifestationtheir cell phone or the shoes they are wearing for example. However, students may have trouble understanding the “totality” of the product physically demonstratedthe core benefit, the basic product, expected product, augmented, and potential product. The instructor is encouraged to use the class period to allow the students to try to uncover or explore these additional components of the “product” concept so that the students will begin to understand these dimensions better. Students should have no problems understanding the concepts of durability and reliability, nor should they have problems with brands differentiation or product line depth and breath. Perhaps, the most challenging concept of the chapter is the concept of line stretching, and/or line filling. Again, the instructor is encouraged to use examples from manufacturers and/or personal experience to communicate these concepts successfully. Finally, the labeling of a product includes both advertising copy and governmental regulations will be new material for many students. TEACHING STRATEGY AND CLASS ORGANIZATION PROJECTS1. At this point for the semester-long project, students should have set their group projects product or service strategy. Instructors are to evaluate their submissions on the product (or services) features, quality, and price and other the other considerations of “product” found in this chapter. 90Chapter 12: Setting Product Strategy2. In planning its market offering, the marketer needs to address five product levels: core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, and potential product. Students should select a firm within an industry and through research (Internet and other formats) outline the firms five product levels for its products. In their research, students should be challenged to discover the firms perception of the customers value hierarchy and total consumption system. 3. Sonic PDA Marketing Plan Decisions about products are critical elements of any marketing plan. During the planning process, marketers must consider issues related to product mix and product lines. Product marketers distinguish five levels of product, each adding more customer value: core benefit, basic, expected, augmented, and potential. In assessing product strategy: How would you define the core benefit for Sonic 1000? How would you define the augmented product for Sonic 2000, the second product to be launched by Sonic next year? Write your answers to the questions in a written marketing plan or enter it in the Product Offering and Marketing Mix sections of Marketing Plan Pro. ASSIGNMENTSSmall Group Assignments1. The opening vignette of this chapter details the success of Steinway Pianos in their delivery of a superior product. There are numerous examples of companies delivering offerings that meet the target customers needs or wants. In this assignment, the students are challenged to compile a list of at least three other examples of company products performing at exceptional levels despite intense competition. In their report, students should not only identify the products and companies in terms of the definition of “product” described in this chapter, but also be able to delineate the salient characteristics of their selected products. 2. Convenience items and capital good items can be seen as two ends of the “product continuum.” Convenience items are purchased frequently, immediately, and with minimum of effort. Capital goods are those items that last a long period of time and are purchased infrequently by consumers. Students should select a convenience good and a capital good of their choice and compare and contrast the consumers value hierarchy and users total consumption system for each item. Individual Assignments1. Assign the following readings to students: Robert Bordley, “Determining the Appropriate Depth and Breath of a Firms Product Portfolio,” Journal of Marketing Research, 40 (February), 2003, pp. 3953 or Peter Boatwright and Joseph C. Nunes, “Reducing Assortment: An Attribute-Based Approach,” Journal of Marketing, 65 (July), 2001, pp.5063. After reading each article, students should submit a paper summarizing their findings and illustrating the concepts exposed in these papers to the material covered in this chapter. 91Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional Material2. When the physical product cannot easily be differentiated, the key to competitive success may lie in adding valued services and improving their quality. Examples of adding value in the service component of a product include computers, education, and pizzas. Each student is to select a product in which they think that the additional value present lies in the service and quality components. Students should be prepared to defend their selections using the material presented in this chapter. Think-Pair-Share1. In the Marketing Memo entitled, Making Ingredient Branding Work, the authors list four requirements for success in ingredient branding. As a group, students should collect examples of ingredient branding currently present in the marketplace (super-markets, hotels/motels, automobile companies, and causal dining establishments are good places to start) and examine these examples versus the four requirements stated in the memo. Students should be able to defend their positions in comparing these products to the statements in the Marketing Memo. 2. Product differentiation is essential to the branding process. In choosing to differentiate a product, a marketer has the choice of form, features, performance quality, conformance quality, durability, reliability, repairability, and style. Collect examples of currently produced products that have been differentiated and branded for each of these design parameters. MARKETING TODAYCLASS DISCUSSION TOPICSOne of the “hottest” consumer trends of recent years is the “low-carb” diet. Marketers and manufacturers of food products and food establishments have introduced numerous new and revised products to the marketplace labeled “low-carb” to capitalize on their consumers desire to limit their carbohydrate intakes. In reviewing some of the currently available “low-carb,” products (consumer products and restaurant menu choices) discuss whether or not:A) The products are actually lower in carbohydrates than the previously produced product (product differentiation).B) That the products labeling is abiding with the current labeling laws.C) The firm has just reclassified the product as “low-carb” in order to take advantage of this trend.92Chapter 12: Setting Product StrategyEND-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORTMARKETING DEBATEAre Line Extensions Good or Bad? The “form versus function” debate applies in many arenas, including marketing. Some marketers believe that product performance is the end all and be all. Other marketers maintain that the looks, feel, and other design elements of products are what really make the difference. Take a position: Product functionality is the key to brand success versus product design is the key to brand success. Suggested ResponsePro: Consumers buy products to satisfy a need. A consumer uses products and decides on a product based upon their own consumption systemthe way the product is by the consumer (getting the product, using the product, and disposing of the product). Additionally, the customer value hierarchy (core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, and potential product) enters into the decision-making process for a consumer. Therefore, a product must perform to an acceptable level according to the consumers perception of benefits in their customer value hierarchy. A low price, low function product, like a disposable razor must at least perform the task to which it was created. A more expensive product, an electric razor, must meet the function to which it was created, although these functions are at a higher level than the disposable razor. If either product does not perform to the consumers basic product definition then the product will be discarded and not re-purchased. Con: Products have unique characteristics and specific brand identifications that meet consumers need that are not related to functionability. Such needs as status, self-actualization, and style appeal to a wide audience. For example, most automobiles will perform the task of taking a person from point A to point B. However, it is the design of the automobile (specific make/type: i.e. sports car, luxury car) that appeals to the buyer. For many consumers style plays a more important role, for some, the only role in their buying decision. A well-designed product can also be a point-of-difference in the marketplace aiding consumer acceptance through its ease of use, durability, reliability, or packaging. A well-designed product can be a competitive advantage for smaller firms. Whatever, the design, however, the product must at least meet the consumers definition of a basic product. Once that definition is met, design can be a powerful marketing asset. MARKETING DISCUSSIONConsider the diverse means of differentiating products and services. Which ones have the most impact on your choices? Why? Can you think of certain brands that excel on a number of these different means of differentiation? 93Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialStudent answers will differ according to the product/services chosen. However, student answers should encompass the following distinctions:Products differentiation includes: Form Features Performance quality Conformance quality Durability Reliability Repairability StyleServices differentiation includes: Ordering ease Delivery installation Customer training Customer consulting Maintenance and repairMARKETING SPOTLIGHTToyotaDiscussion Questions1) What have been the key success factors for Toyota?a. Product differentiation features. b. Service differentiation features.2) Where is Toyota vulnerable?a. Rapid changes in the market for automobiles due to environmental or governmental changes.b. Rapid copying by competitors.3) What should marketers watch out for?a. External changes to the automobile market created by environmental or governmental regulations.b. Changes in consumer attitudes and preferences in their consumption system and customer value hierarchy.94Chapter 12: Setting Product Strategy4) What recommendations would you make to senior marketing executives going forward?a. Do not rest on past successes. b. Continue to keep abreast in your target markets consumption system and customer value hierarchy. 5) What should they be sure to do with their marketing? a. Appeal to those factors that are present in their target markets definitions of: core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, and potential product. b. Deliver to the “potential product” while ensuring that the core, basic, expected, and augmented products meet consumers definitions. DETAILED CHAPTER OUTLINEAt the heart of a great brand is a great product. Product is a key element in the market offering. Market leaders generally offer products and services of superior quality. Marketing planning begins with formulation an offering to meet target customers needs or wants. The customer will judge the offering by three basic elements: product features and quality, services mix and quality, and price.Figure 12.1 shows components of the market offering. PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATIONSA product is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want or need. A) Products that are marketed include:1) Physical goods.2) Services.3) Experiences.4) Events.5) Persons.6) Places.7) Properties.8) Organizations.9) Information.10) Ideas.95Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialProduct Levels: The Customer Value HierarchyIn planning its market offering, the marketer needs to address five product levels. Each level adds more customer value, and the five constitute a customer value hierarchy. Figure 12.2 shows five product levels.A) The fundamental level is the core benefit: The service or benefit the customer is really buying. Marketers must see themselves as benefit providers. B) At the second level, the marketer has to turn the core benefit into a basic product. C) At the third level, the marketer prepares an expected product, a set of attributes and conditions buyers normally expect when they purchase this product. D) At the fourth level, the marketer prepares an augmented product that exceeds customer expectations. 1) Differentiation arises on the basis of product augmentation. Product augmentation also leads the marketer to look at the total consumption system: the way the user performs the tasks of getting and using products and related services. 2) Some things should be noted about product-augmentation strategy: a. First, each augmentation adds costs.b. Second, augmented benefits soon become expected benefits and necessary points-of-parity. c. Third, as companies raise the price of their augmented product, some competitors offer a “stripped-down” version at a much lower price. E) At the fifth level stands the potential product that encompasses all the possible augmentations and transformations the product or offering might undergo in the future. 1) Here is where companies search for new ways to satisfy customers and distinguish its individual offer. Review Key Definitions here: core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, total consumption system, and potential productProduct Classifications Marketers have traditionally classified products on the basis of characteristics: durability, tangibility, and use. Each product type has an appropriate marketing-mix strategy. 96Chapter 12: Setting Product StrategyDurability and TangibilityProducts can be classified into three groups, according to durability and tangibility:A) Nondurable goods: tangible consumed in one or a few uses. B) Durable goods: tangible that normally survives many uses. Durable goods require more personal selling and service, command a higher margin, and require more seller guarantees. C) Services: intangible, inseparable, variable, and perishable products that require more quality control, supplier credibility, and adaptability. Consumer-Goods ClassificationThe vast array of goods consumers buy can be classified on the basis of shopping habits. A) The consumer usually purchases convenience goods frequently, immediately, and with a minimum of effort.B) Shopping goods are goods that the consumer, in the process of selection and purchase, characteristically compares on such basis as suitability, quality, price, and style.1) Homogeneous shopping goods are similar in quality but different enough on price to adjust shopping comparisons.2) Heterogeneous shopping goods differ in product features and services that may be more important than price.3) Specialty goods have unique characteristics or brand identification for which a sufficient number of buyers are willing to make a special purchasing effort. 4) Unsought goods are those that the consumer does not know about or does not normally think of buying. The classic examples of known but unsought goods are life insurance and cemetery plots. Review Key Definitions here: convenience goods, shopping goods, homogeneous shopping goods, heterogeneous shopping goods, specialty goods, and unsought goodsIndustrial-Goods ClassificationAn Industrial good can be classified in terms of how it enters the production process and its relative costliness. We can distinguish three groups of industrial goods: materials and parts, capital items, and suppliers and business services. A) Materials and parts.1) These are goods enter the manufacturers product completely. They fall into two major groups: a. Raw materials include: 97Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional Material(i) Farm productscommodity characteristics.(ii) Natural productsare in limited supply. b. Manufactured materials and parts fall into two categories: (i) Component materials.(ii) Component parts.B) Capital items are long-lasting goods that facilitate developing or managing the finished product. They include:1) Installations.2) Equipment.C) Supplies and business services are short-term goods and services that facilitate developing or managing the finished product. Supplies are two kinds:1) Maintenance and repair items (including business advisory services such as, legal, consulting, and advertising).2) Operating supplies.DIFFERENTIATIONTo be branded, products must be differentiated. Physical products vary in potential for differentiation. )A Marketers are always looking for new dimensions of differentiation. Product DifferentiationA) Form: Many products can be differentiated in formthe size, shape, or physical structure of a product.B) Features: Most products can be offered with varying features that supplement its basic function. 1) A company can identify and select appropriate features by surveying buyers and then calculating customer value versus company cost for each feature. 2) Each company must decide whether to offer feature customization at a higher cost or a few standard packages at a lower cost. C) Performance quality: Most products are established at one of four performance levels: low, average, high, or superior. 1) Performance quality is the level at which the products primary characteristics operate. 2) The manufacturer must design a performance level appropriate to the target market and competitors performance levels. 3) A company must mange performance quality through time. 98Chapter 12: Setting Product Strategya. Quality is becoming an increasingly important parameter for differentiation as companies adopt a value model and provide higher quality for less money. D) Conformance quality: Buyers expect products to have a high conformance quality that is the degree to which all the produced units are identical and meet the promised specifications. 1) the problem with low conformance quality is that the product will disappoint some buyers. E) Durability: A measure of the products expected operating life under natural or stressful conditions1) Durability is a valued attribute for certain products. 2) Buyers will generally pay more for products that have a reputation for being long lasting. F) Reliability: Buyers normally will pay a premium for more reliable products. Reliability is a measure of the probability that a product will not malfunction or fail within a specified time period G) Style: Describes the products look and feel to the buyer. 1) Style has the advantage of creating distinctiveness that is difficult to copy. 2) Strong style does not always mean high performance. Review Key Definitions here: form, features, performance quality, conformance quality, durability, reliability, and styleDesign: The Integrative ForceAs competition intensifies, design offers a potent way to differentiate and position a companys products and services. Design is the totality of features that affect how a product looks and functions in terms of customer requirements. A) To the company, a well-designed product is one that is easy to manufacture and distribute. B) To the customer, a well-designed product is one that is pleasant to look at and easy to open, install, use, repair, and dispose of. Services DifferentiationWhen the physical product cannot easily be differentiated, the key to competitive success may lie in adding valued services and improving quality. The main service differentiators are ordering ease, delivery, installation, customer training, customer consulting, and maintenance and repair. Ordering Ease)A Ordering ease refers to how easy it is for the customer to place an order with the company.99Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialDelivery)A Delivery refers to how well the product or service is delivered to the customer. It includes speed, accuracy, and care attending the delivery process. InstallationA) Installation refers to the work done to make a product operational in its planned location.B) Differentiating at this point in the consumption chain is particularly important for companies with complex productsease of installation becomes a true selling point. Customer TrainingA) Customer training refers to training the customers employees to use the vendors equipment properly and efficiently. Customer ConsultingA) Customer consulting refers to data, information systems, and advice services that the seller offers to buyers. Maintenance and RepairA) Maintenance and repair describes the service program for helping customers keep purchased products in good working order.PRODUCT AND BRAND RELATIONSHIPSEach product can be related to other products. The Brand HierarchyThe product hierarchy stretches from basic needs to particular items that satisfy those needs. We can identify six levels of the product hierarchy. A) Need family.B) Product family.C) Product class.D) Product line.E) Product type.F) Item, also called stockkeeping unit (SKU) or product variant. Product Systems and MixesA product system is a group of diverse but related items that function in a compatible manner. 100Chapter 12: Setting Product StrategyA) A product mix (also called a product assortment) is a set of all products and items a particular seller offers for sale. A product mix consists of various product lines. B) A companys product mix has a certain width, length, depth, and consistency.C) The depth of a product mix refers to how many different product lines the company carries.1) The length of a product mix refers to the total number of items in the mix. a. We can also talk about the average length of a line. This is obtained by dividing the total length by the number of lines. 2) The width of a product mix refers to how many variants are offered of each product in the line.3) The consistency of the product mix refers to how closely related the various product lines are in end use, production requirements, distribution channels, or some other way. Table 12.1 shows some product lines for P&G.Product-Line AnalysisA) In offering a product line, companies normally develop a basic platform and modules that can be added to meet different customer requirements. B) Product-line managers need to know the sales and profits of each item in their line in order to determine which items to build, maintain, harvest, or divest. Sales and ProfitsFigure 12.3 shows a sales and profit report for a five-item product line. A) Every companys product portfolio contains products with different margins. B) A company can classify its products into four types that yield different gross margins, depending on sales volume and promotion.1) Core product.2) Staples.3) Specialties.4) Convenience items.Market ProfileThe product-line manager must review how the line is positioned against competitors lines. Figure 12.4 shows the location of the various product-line items of company X and four competitors. 101Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialA) The product map shows which competitors items are competing against company Xs items.B) The map also reveals possible locations for new items. C) Another benefit of product mapping is that it identifies market segments. D) Product-line analysis provides information for two key decision areasproduct-line length and product-mix pricing. Product-Line LengthA) Company objectives influence product-line length. B) One objective is to create a product line to induce upselling.C) A different objective is to create a product line that facilitates cross selling.D) Still another objective is to create a product line that protects against economic ups and downs.E) Product lines tend to lengthen over time.F) A company lengthens its product line in two ways: by line stretching and line filling. Line StretchingA) Line stretching occurs when a company lengthens its product line beyond its current range. B) Down-market stretch is when a company positioned in the middle market may want to introduce a lower-priced line. 1) Moving down-market carries risk. C) Up-market stretchcompanies may wish to enter the high end of the market for:1) More growth.2) Higher margins.3) Simply to position themselves as a full-line manufacturer. D) Two-way stretch is where companies serving the middle market might decide to stretch the line in both directions. Line FillingA) A product line can also be lengthened by adding more items within the present range. There are several motives for line filling: 1) Reaching for incremental profits.2) Trying to satisfy dealers who complain about lost sales because of missing items in the line.3) Trying to utilize excess capacity.102Chapter 12: Setting Product Strategy4) Trying to be the leading full-line company.5) Trying to plug holes to keep out competitors. B) Line filling is overdone if it results in self-cannibalization and customer confusion.C) The company needs to differentiate each item in the consumers mind. D) Each item should possess a just-noticeable difference. E) The company should also check that the proposed item meets a market need and is not being added simply to satisfy an internal need.Line Modernization, Featuring, and PruningProduct lines need to be modernized. In rapidly changing product markets, modernization is continuous. A) Companies plan improvement to encourage customer migration to higher-valued, higher-priced items.B) The product-line manager typically select one or a few items in the line to feature. C) Product-line mangers must periodically review the line for deadwood that is depressing profits. Product-Mix PricingA) Price-setting logic must be modified when the product is part of a product mix. B) Pricing is difficult because the various products have demand, cost interrelationships, and are subject to different degrees of competition.C) We can distinguish six situations involving product-mix pricing: product-line pricing, optional-feature pricing, captive-product pricing, two-part pricing, by-product pricing, and product bundling pricing. 1) Product-line pricing.a. Companies normally develop product lines rather than single products and introduce price steps. b. In many lines of trade, sellers use well-established price points for the products in its personal line. c. The sellers task is to establish perceived-quality differences that justify the price differences. 2) Optional-feature pricing.a. Many companies offer optional products, features, and services along with their main product. b. Pricing is a sticky problem, because companies must decide which items to include in the standard price and which to offer as options. 103Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional Material3) Captive-product pricing.a. Some products require the use of ancillary or captive products. b. There is a danger in pricing the captive product too high in the aftermarket. 4) Two-part pricing.a) Service firms often engage in two-part pricing, consisting of a fixed fee plus a variable usage fee. 5) By-product pricing. a) The production of certain goods often results in by-products. If the by-products have value to a customer group, they should be priced on their value. 6) Product-bundling pricing. a. Sellers often bundle product and features. b. Pure bundling occurs when a firm only offers its products as a bundle (tied-in sales). c. In mixed-bundling, the seller offers goods both individually and in bundles. d. When offering a mixed bundle, the seller normally charges less for the bundle than if the items were purchased separately. e. Some customers will want less than the whole bundle. f. Studies have shown that as promotional activity increases on individual items in the bundle, buyers perceive less savings on the bundle and are less apt to pay for the bundle. g. This research has offered the following three suggested guidelines for correctly implementing a bundling strategy:(i) Dont promote individual products in a package as frequently and cheaply as the bundle. The bundle price should be much lower than the sum of individual products or the consumer will not perceive its attractiveness. (ii) Limit promotions to a single item in the mix if you still want to promote individual products. Another option: alternate promotions, one after another, in order to avoid conflicting promotions.(iii)If you decide to offer large rebates on individual products, it must be the absolute exception and done with discretion. Otherwise, the consumer uses the price of individual products as an external reference for the bundle that then loses value.Review Key Definitions here: product line pricing, optional-feature pricing, captive-product pricing, two-part pricing, by-product pricing, product-bundling pricing, pure bundling pricing, and mixed-bundling104Chapter 12: Setting Product StrategyCo-Branding A) Products are often combined with products from other companies in various ways.B) Co-brandingis also called dual branding or brand bundling. )1 Is in which two or more well known existing brands are combined into a joint product and/or marketed together in some fashion. C) One form of co-branding is same-company co-branding. D) Still another form is joint-venture co-branding. E) Multi-sponsor co-branding.1) The main advantage to co-branding is that a product may be convincingly positioned by virtue of the multiple brands involved. F) Co-branding can generate greater sales from the existing target market as well as open additional opportunities with new consumers and channels. 1) Co-branding can also reduce the cost of product introduction because two well-known images are combined, accelerating potential adoption. G) The potential disadvantages of co-branding are:1) The risks and lack of control from becoming aligned with another brand in the minds of consumers.2) Consumer expectations about the level of involvement and commitment with co-brands are likely to be high, so unsatisfactory performance could have negative repercussions for the brands involved. 3) Risk of overexposure if the other brand has entered into a number of co-branding arrangements.4) It may also result in a lack of focus on existing brands. H) A necessary condition for co-branding success is that the two brands separately have brand equityadequate brand awareness and a sufficiently positive brand image. I) The most important requirement is that there is a logical fit between the two brands such that the combined brand or marketing activity maximizes the advantages of the individual brands while minimizing the disadvantage. J) Research studies show that consumers are more apt to perceive co-brands favorable if the two brands are complementary rather than similar. K) Co-branding ventures must be entered into and executed carefully. L) There must be the right kind of fit in value, capabilities, and goals, in addition to an appropriate balance of brand equity. Review Key Definitions here: co-branding, same-company co-branding, joint-venture co-branding, multi-sponsor co-branding105Chapter-by-Chapter Instructional MaterialIngredient BrandingIngredient branding is a special case of co-branding that involves creating brand equit