外文翻译：农村向城市的迁移和工资确定.doc

金融危机下农民工就业问题分析ruralurban migration and wage determination:the case of tianjin, china1. introductionsince the mid-1980s, mass labor migration from the countryside to urban areas has been one of the most dramatic and noticeable changes in china. based on survey data from tianjin, this paper examines the characteristics of migrants and compares the employment and social conditions of migrants with those of permanent urban residents. it also investigates the determinants that affect wages of both migrant and nonimmigrant workers in order to evaluate how economic and social-demographic factors contribute to the earning gap between rural and urban workers. the economic reform in china that started in 1978 has created a “floating population” as over 100 million people have left their villages and streamed into cities where manufacturing and businesses boom. the migration of labor from agricultural to non-agricultural industries has increased the average income of rural people as migrant workers send a significant portion of their income back home. at the same time, rural migrant laborers have made great contributions to economic growth by complementing the labor force of cities and providing low-cost work. however, the benefits from economic growth have not been fairly shared between urban and migrant workers, and clear disparities exist in chinas urban and rural labor markets. it is estimated that between 12 and 15 million non-farm jobs will be required annually just to absorb this surplus labor.rural migrants generally make less money, receive far fewer benefits, and have no health insurance. most live in precarious dormitories provided by their employers if they have any housing. rural surplus laborers who moved to urban areas are called mingong to mark their difference from the city-dwelling workers. rural migrants are treated as strangers and outsiders in cities. they are denied formal urban membership and substantive rights and their children are largely prohibited from attending city schools.the urbanrural disparities in chinas labor market may be categorized into two types. the first difference relates to productivity-related characteristics, such as education and job training, and the second relates to non-productivity-related characteristics, such as race, gender, or in our case, hukou status, which also could affect labor status. discrimination is present if equally productive individuals within the same enterprise are treated differently simply because of their hukou status.in order to promote labor mobility and efficiency and to improve equality and social stability, it is important to first understand the motivations for migration and then examine the conditions that migrants encounter. why do farmers migrate to cities? what are characteristics of migrants? what factors determine wages? are migrant workers discriminated in chinas urban labor market? to answer these questions, a survey of employees was conducted from october to december 2003 in tianjin, one of the four central government municipalities in china. we found that, in addition to economic and social-demographic factors such as ownership of business, education, experience, and age, the restrictive hukou system has negatively influenced migrants income. this paper limits its discussions to migrant and non-migrant workers with migrant workers defined as those not having tianjin hukou.2. ruralurban migration and wage determinants: a literature reviewmillions of people in the rural populations of the developing world confront the decision of migrating to urban areas and every year; many find it worthwhile to leave their villages for cities. the 2000 population census data show that 144.39 million rural residents in china, or 11.6% of the total population, moved into cities and towns, in 2000.the massive ruralurban migration since 1980 can be broadly attributed to the huge surplus of rural labor, widening income and consumption disparities between rural and urban residents, and heavy taxation on the agricultural sector. the rapid expansion of chinas rural labor force, improvement in production efficiency, and the continuing reduction of cultivated land have caused a larger portion of rural laborers to be underemployed or unemployed. in the early 1980s, the surplus of rural laborers was 70 million, or 18% of the entire rural labor force and this surplus grew to about 130 million, or 28% 10 years later.the widening income and consumption disparity between rural and urban residents is clearly a factor contributing to increasing migration. in 1978, annual per capita disposable income was 2.6 times higher for urban residents than for rural peasants and, by 2001, that ratio increased to 2.9. over the same time period, the ratio of urban to rural consumption per capita increased from 2.9 to 3.5, demonstrating widening income and consumption disparities (nbsc, various years, 19942003). in addition, urban residents also enjoy various state-subsidies on food, education, employment, and medical services. the heavy tax burden on farmers also influences rural migration. although the central government emphasized the importance of alleviating this burden, according to, local governments still tax a significant portion of farmers income. even worse, the agricultural taxation is regressive. for example, in 1996, the tax rate was 16.7% for rural families with an annual income between 400 and 500 yuan, but only 2.8% for those with incomes of 2500 to 5000. the high tax on farmers income discourages investment in agricultural production, which also contributes to city migration.table 1 lists major reasons why the rural laborers surveyed wanted to table 1 reasons for ruralurban migrationreasonsnumber of responsespercentage (%)higher income in cities18741.1better opportunities in cities20344.6better quality of life in cities14331.4burden of taxes and fees11725.7better education17037.3better education for children12327.0loss of land in the countryside9821.5other419.0source: survey conducted by the authors in tianjin, 2003.responses are not mutually exclusive. total number of respondents is 455.migrate to the city of tianjin. as expected, rural people migrate to seek higher income, better opportunities, a better quality of life, and a better education for themselves and their children. interestingly, more than 20% of migrants cited loss of land in the countryside as a factor. the impact of education on ruralurban migration has been examined in the literature with some studies concluding that education is critical in driving rural laborers away from their land, while others suggest that education is not important in determining migration choice. previous studies have argued that non-market factors are more important than market forces in driving the rural population to non-agricultural migrating jobs. wu, wang, and xu (1990) and wu (1994) found that many chinese rural workers had been securing non-agricultural jobs through their friends or relatives, showed that networks of information and assistance are important for rural workers to get jobs in cities.the return of education on earnings is extremely low in china. the ols estimates of the increase in earnings from an additional year of schooling range from 1.4% to 5.4%. another study uses generalized method of moments estimation for young workers in china, and concludes that the estimated returns to schooling are about 15% overall and 16.9% for women. zhao (1997) uses rural school education to show that ols estimation underestimates the returns to education in china by ignoring the segregation of rural and urban labor markets. she found that the expected rate of return for a rural senior high school education is rather high because it improves access to urban employment where greater earnings are possible. scholars have suggested various government policies to address migration issues .while wage and gender discrimination are common in many countries, they are particularly strong in china because of its unique ownership structure and hukou system. meng (1998) found that overall wage discrimination was more prevalent in the state-owned sector. there is some disagreement about the relative level of gender discrimination in the state owned sector ( maurer-fazio & hughes, 2000; rozelle, dong, zhang, & mason, 2000), but dong and bowles (2002) found that wage discrimination against women and migrant workers exists across ownership types. significant sorting of rural labor migrants exist by occupation, sector, gender,age, marital status, education, and, especially, region of origin (see roberts, 2001).3. discussion and conclusionruralurban migration has become a socioeconomic phenomenon in china since the late 1980s. this study examines factors of ruralurban migration, migrant characteristics, and the determinants of wages. since the late 1980s, the labor surplus, heavy tax burden, and loss of lands in rural areas, combined with higher income, more opportunities, and better education in cities, have driven farmers to leave their homelands for cities. past institutions, especially the hukou system, however, make ruralurban migration difficult. the government finds itself in a dilemma trying to balance the benefits brought by migrants and limit their inflow at the same time. a wage regression model is developed to study the determinants of the wage gap between rural and urban workers. wages for both groups are sensitive to standard worker characteristics in the expected direction. the results also show that urban workers make more than migrant workers, holding all other things constant, which suggests wage discrimination. in this sample, hukou does have a significant impact on the wage gap between migrant and non-migrant workers. after accounting for human capital characteristics, female workers earn significantly lower wages than male workers in the urban sample, but not in the migrant sample. the ownership of the enterprise plays an important role in determining a workers earning with, workers in soes receiving lower pay than those in other enterprises. the empirical results give the following policy implications. first, the hukou system not only hinders ruralurban migration but also contributes to a wage gap between migrant and urban workers. abolishment of the hukou system will thus improve labor mobility, efficiency, and fairness. second, given the positive influence of education and training on wages for both migrant and non-migrant workers, it is important to invest in human capital in order to increase the productivity of both rural and urban laborers. strategies to alleviate poverty should place more emphasis on raising the educational level of the rural population than on restricting migration to cities. third, female workers may face wage discrimination in the urban labor market. much needs to be done to better protect female workers so that women are not pushed into low-status, low-wage jobs in the service sector.农村向城市的迁移和工资确定： 基于中国天津的情况 1、导言自20世纪80年代年代中期以来，大规模的劳动力从农村迁移到城市地区一直在戏剧性的和显著的变化着。根据来自天津的调查数据，本文探讨和比较农民工与永久居民的就业和社会条件的特点。它还调查影响农民工与非农民工工资的决定因素，以评估经济和人口因素对农村和城市收入差距的贡献。经济改革在我国开始于1978年，出现了一个超过1亿人离开了他们的村庄涌入城市制造业和企业的繁荣的“流动人口”。劳动力从农业向非农产业的转移，是流动的农村居民平均收入增加并带回家的一个重要部分。与此同时，农民工通过补充城市劳动力和提供廉价的劳动力对经济增长做出了巨大贡献。然而，从经济增长中分享的收益在农民工和城市工人之间却是不公平的，我国城乡劳动力市场存在着明显的差距。据估计，每年将需要公正吸收剩余劳动力12至15万的非农业就业机会。农民工通常做的贡献很多，得到的好处却要少得多，而且没有医疗保险。大多数生活在朝不保夕的雇主提供的宿舍。农村富余劳动力转移到城市地区被称为民工来区分他们与城市居住工人的不同。农民工在城市里被当作陌生人和外人，他们被剥夺了城市成员和实质性权利，他们的子女基本上禁止进入城市学校。我国的劳动力市场的城乡差距可以分为两种类型。第一差异涉及到生产力的相关特性，如教育和在职培训， 第二个问题涉及到非生产率有关的特征，如种族，性别，或是我们所说的户口地位，这也可能会影响到劳动力的地位。如果同样的生产工人在同一企业有不同的待遇只是因为他们的户口地位，那么歧视确实存在。为了促进劳动力流动性和效率，并改善社会稳定和平等，重要的是先了解转移的动机，然后检查转移遇到的困难。为什么农民迁移到城市？有哪些流动特点？工资是由什么因素决定的？农民工在我国城市劳动力市场是否存在歧视？回答这些问题，我们从一项从10月到2003年12月在一个中央政府直辖市的天津的调查发现，除了经济和社会的人口因素，如所有权的商业，教育，经验与年龄，户籍制度的限制对移民的收入有不利的影响。本文限制了它的讨论，移民和非移民工人与移民工人的定义是： 是否具有天津户口。 2 、农村向城市的迁移和工资的决定因素：一个文献综述数百万的农村居民在发展中国家面临着迁移到城市地区的决定，每年有许多人认为离开自己的村庄来到城市是值得的。 2000年人口普查数据显示，在2000年有一亿四千四百三十九万农村居民，或11.6 的总人口，进入城市和城镇。自1980年以来出现了大规模的农村向城市的移民，大致可以归因于农村劳动力的巨额顺差，城乡居民之间日益扩大的收入和消费差距，以及农业税的加重、劳动生产率的提高、耕地的持续减少，造成了较大部分的农村劳动力的剩余或失业。在20世纪80年代初期，富余的农村劳动力为70万，相当于整个农村劳动力的18%而10年后增长到约130万即28 。日益扩大的收入和消费之间的差距城乡居民显然是一个劳动力流动增加的因素。1978年，城镇居民人均年可支配收入为农村居民的2.6倍，到2001年，这一比例上升至2.9倍。在同一时期内，城市比农村的人均消费量从2.9 倍增长到3.5倍，这表明收入和消费差距的日益扩大（国家统计局，不同年份，1994-2003年）。此外，城镇居民还享有各种国家补贴的食品，教育，就业和医疗服务。沉重的税务负担，也影响农民的农村移民。虽然中央政府强调，必须减轻这种负担，地方政府仍然把相当一部分农民的收入收税。更糟的是，农业税收是倒退的。例如，在1996年，税率为16.7 的农村家庭的年收入400至500元，但只有2.8 的人收入在2500至5000间。 高税收以及农民收入不鼓励投资农业生产，这也促进了向城市的迁移。表1列出农村劳动力要迁移到城市天津的主要原因，正如预期的那样，农村居民迁移，寻求更高的收入，更好的机会，更好的生活质量，以及更好的教育，为自己和子女。有趣的是，20 以上的移民提到的土地流失在表1 农村向城市迁移的原因原因回收数目百分比 (%)在城市有更高的收入18741.1在城市有更好的机会20344.6在城市有更好的生活质量14331.4负担的税费11725.7更好的教育17037.3孩子有更好的教育12327.0