Chapter 2 Speech Sounds.ppt

1、,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Introduction As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology.,Phonetics s

2、tudies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.,Three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception

3、of speech sounds.,Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur (Crystal, 1997:162). In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an indivi

4、dual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and

5、 ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.,2.1 How speech sounds are made,2.1.1 Speech organs,Speech organs(vocal organs)(言语器官): those part of the human body involved in the production of speech Part of the body that are involved in the production of

6、speech: the lungs（肺），the trachea(气管), the throat（咽喉）, the nose and the mouth The mouth: the tongue, the plate(腭) The throat: pharynx (upper)(咽), larynx (lower)(喉头) The vocal tract(声道): the pharynx, mouth, and nose The mouth: the oral cavity(口腔) The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔),Vocal folds(vocal cords,

7、 vocal bands): a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adams apple. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, or (c) totally closed. Voiceless(清音): the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass easily p,s,t Voiced(浊音): the voc

8、al folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other b,z,d Glottal stop(喉塞音): the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them,Position of the vocal folds: voiceless,发音器官的构造及其作用,世界上所有的声音都是物体振动产生的声波在介质中传递的结果，因此声音的产生离不开振动的动力、振动的源头和振动的共鸣腔。语音说到底也是一种声音，因而也离

9、不开振动的动力、源头和共鸣腔，只不过语音是由人类的发音器官各部分协同动作所产生的，研究语音的产生，就必须首先了解发音器官的构造和功能。 人类的发音器官可以分为三大部分：呼吸器官、喉头声带与声腔（口腔、鼻腔与咽腔），我们详细介绍各部分的构造和功能。,发音器官的构造及其作用,1 呼吸器官 呼吸器官主要包括肺、气管和支气管。肺部的收缩和扩张可以产生呼气和吸气的气流变化，这种气流变化不仅为人类的生存提供氧气和二氧化碳的交换，而且为语音的发出提供了振动的动力。世界上多数语言的语音利用呼气作为动力，非洲有些语言还利用吸气发音。,发音器官的构造及其作用,2 喉头和声带 喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒状，上接咽腔，下

10、接气管，喉头的外表就是喉结。喉头软骨构成的圆筒中有一对声带，声带是两片富有弹性的唇性肌肉，其前后两端都粘附在软骨上。两片声带之间的空隙叫声门，声门又可以分为音门和气门两部分。由于肌肉的松弛紧缩和软骨的开合回转，声带可以放松或拉紧，声门可以打开和关闭，从而产生不同的气流状态。声带的两小片肌肉可以在气流的冲击下振动，这种振动产生了语音中的浊音。所以声带的主要作用是振动的源头之一-浊音的音源。,发音器官的构造及其作用,3 声腔 声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。 口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈、硬腭、软腭和小舌。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬

11、腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖、舌叶、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌跟。,发音器官的构造及其作用,鼻腔位于口腔的上方，好像一个是楼上，一个是楼下，上腭就是楼板，而软腭带动小舌就像一扇活动的楼门。（解释：口音 鼻音 鼻化音） 咽腔位于喉头的上面，是一个管状的三岔口，上通鼻腔，前通口腔，下通喉头和食道。

12、 在上述各发音器官中，有些器官如唇、舌、软腭、小舌、声带等是能活动的，叫作主动发音器官；有些器官如上齿、齿龈、硬腭等是不能活动的，叫作被动发音器官。我们发音的时候，常由主动发音器官向被动发音器官接触或靠近，让气流冲击产生振动而发音。 声腔是人类最重要的发音器官，声腔中又以口腔及其中的各种器官作用最大。,2.1.2 The IPA,The International Phonetic Association (IPA)(标音法) 1897 The International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) 1888first version The lates

13、t version was revised in 1993 and updated twice in 1996 and 2005. In the IPA chart, the sound segments are grouped into CONSONANTS and VOWELS.,The InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005),2.2 Consonants and Vowels元音和辅音,The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. Consonants are

14、 produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. A vowel is produced without obstruction of the air so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.,The distinction between vowels an

15、d consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.,2.2.1 Consonants,In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, th

16、e initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors.,The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can be ac

17、complished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.,Stop (or Plosive) Oral provide a frame of reference for the description of the act

18、ual vowels of existing languages. represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space Thus, the cardinal vowel diagram in the IPA is a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points,based on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgments, the front, center, and back of the

19、 tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height(the highest position, the lowest position and two intermediate levels). The system defines eight “primary” cardinal vowels: iea (unrounded) ou (rounded),Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics (1918),Black: IPA Red: English,Vowel glides(元

20、音音渡）,Pure/Monophthongmnuf vowels(纯元音或单元音): Vowels whose quality remains constant throughout the articulation Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality Diphthongdf, (双元音): a single movement(way, tide, how, toy, toe) of tongue is involved Triphthongtrif (三重元音): a double movement

21、(wire, tower) of tongue,2.2.3 The sounds of English,The most common accent in the teaching of English: RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP)(BBC English, Oxford English). The Kings/Queens English It originates historically in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middles and upper classes throug

22、hout England. In the USA, the widely accepted accent used is GENERAL AMERICAN (GA) English consonants,Describe consonants,Place of articulation Manner of articulation Voicing Eg. p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop s voiceless alveolar fricative z voiced alveolar fricative,English vowel

23、s,Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded),We can n

24、ow describe the English vowels in this way: high front tense unrounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel,2.3 From phonetics to phonology,2.3.1 Coarticulation and phonetic transcriptions Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do

25、not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb.,When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like th

26、e following sound (lamb), it is known as anticipatory coarticulation (逆化协同发音). If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound (map), it is perseverative coarticulation (重复性协同发音). The former is more common than the latter.,The fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following

27、nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol , as .,By the same token, we can use these diacritics for recording other variations of the same sound. Take p for example, it is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in

28、speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p.,For most purposes, however, it is not necessary to indicate such variations of a sound every time. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcript

29、ion, it is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. Both are phonetic transcriptions so we put both forms in square brackets .,2.3.2 Phonemes 音位,Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical prop

30、erties of the speech production system. Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the rules that underlie such variations.,Crystal: Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain

31、 sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs test Phonemes,Minimal pairs(最小对立体): Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word. e.g. t and d: tin/din, tie/die i: and i: beat/bit, bead/b

32、id These important units are called phonemes,MINIMAL PAIR： Two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one phoneme) and which also differ in meaning. For example, the English words bear and pear are a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial

33、 phoneme /b/and/p/,The phoneme theory Phoneme: units of explicit sound contrast, built on the idea of contrast Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds. In English, the distinction between aspirated ph and unaspirated p is not phonemic.,By convention, phonemic transcriptions are place

34、d between slant lines (/), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ( ). In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “broad” transcription,2.3.3 Allophones,p, ph are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called a

35、llophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context: p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places.,/p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different p

36、ositions is called allophony or allophonic variation. Another example: the phoneme /l/ It is pronounced differently in lead and deal.,Velarization: clear l and dark l / / _ V / V _ Think about tell and telling!,Some phones are in complementary distribution, but there is another restriction for phone

37、s to fall into the same phoneme. Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance. Sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants. Free variants and free variation:,For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audibl

38、e sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways. The difference may be caused by dialect, habit, or individual preference, instead of any distribution rule. Free variation is also seen in regional differences. Either, direction,2.4 Phonological pro

39、cesses and phonological rules,2.4.1 Assimilation,Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive

40、 assimilation. The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.,English Fricative Devoicing,These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which a TARGET or AFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS

41、 or CONTEXTS. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound.,Any phonological process must have three aspects to it: A) a set of sounds to undergo the process B) a set of sounds produced by the process C) a set of situations in which the process applies,/v/ f /z/ s etc.

42、 voiced fricative voiceless / _ voiceless This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE. A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound. Nasalization rule: -nasal +nasal / _ +nasal Dentalization rule: -dental dental / _ dental Velarization rule: -vela

43、r +velar / _ +velar,2.5 Suprasegmentals,Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are:,2.5.1 The syllable structure, Onset Rime Nucleus Coda k r k t,Open syllable: bar, tie Closed syllable: bard, tied Maximal Onset

44、 Principle (MOP) When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. This explains the question of why /l/ in telling is pronounced as the clear l.,2.5.2 Stress,Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a

45、raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relative notion.,At the word level, it only applies to words with at least t

46、wo syllables. At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to other words in the sentence. The stress pattern in English is no easy matter. In principle, the stress may fall on ant syllable. They also change over history and exhibit regional or dialectal differences

47、.,Changing English Stress Pattern,Becoming norm inTEGral coMMUNal forMIDable conTROVersy,Considered conservative INtegral COMMunal FORmidable CONtroversy,RP laBORatory DEBris GARage,GA LABoratory deBRIS gaRAGE,RP vs. GA,Verb conVICT inSULT proDUCE reBEL,Noun CONvict INsult PROduce REbel,V vs. N,BLAC

48、Kboard BLACKbird,black BOARD black BIRD,Compound Phrase,Compound vs. Phrase,Primary vs. Secondary Stress,epiphenomenal unsatisfactory discrimination standardization communication industrialization,Sentence Stress,Sentence stress is much more interesting. In general situations, notional words are nor

49、mally stressed while structural words are unstressed. Sentence stress is often used to express emphasis, surprise, etc. so that in principle stress may fall on any word or any syllable.,John bought a red car. JOHN bought a red car. John BOUGHT a red car. John bought a RED car. John bought a red CAR.

50、,2.5.3 Intonation,Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly.,(Isnt her name Mary?) No / Jenny The old man didnt come / whereas the young man / did come and actually enjoyed himself I didnt do it,2.5.4 Tone,In Chinese tone changes are used in a different way, affect